
qass-SjM5 3 

Book ^ ^_ _ 

GqpgMF ■ — 

CCEXRIGHT DEPOSIT. 






i/Lc/^A 



Manual of Gardening 



A PRACTICAL GUIDE 

TO THE MAKING OF HOME GROUNDS AND 

THE GROWING OF FLOWERS, FRUITS, 

AND VEGETABLES FOR HOME USE 



BY 
L. H. BAILEY 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 
1910 

AH rights reserved 



COPYKIGHT, 1910, 

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published March, 1910. 



J. S. dishing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 



6CI.A259435 -£ 



EXPLANATION 



It has been my desire to reconstruct the two books, " Garden- 
Making" and " Practical Garden-Book " ; but inasmuch as 
these books have found a constituency in their present form, 
it has seemed best to let them stand as they are and to con- 
tinue their publication as long as the demand maintains itself, 
and to prepare a new work on gardening. This new work I 
now offer as " A Manual of Gardening." It is a combination 
and revision of the main parts of the other two books, together 
with much new material and the results of the experience of 
ten added years. 

A book of this kind cannot be drawn wholly from one's own 
practice, unless it is designed to have a very restricted and 
local application. Many of the best suggestions in such a book 
will have come from correspondents, questioners, and those 
who enjoy talking about gardens; and my situation has been 
such that these communications have come to me freely. 
I have always tried, however, to test all such suggestions by 
experience and to make them my own before offering them 
to my reader. I must express my special obligation to those 
persons who collaborated in the preparation of the other two 
books, and whose contributions have been freely used in this 
one: to C. E. Hunn, a gardener of long experience; Professor 
Ernest Walker, reared as a commercial florist; Professor L. R. 
Taft and Professor F. A. Waugh, well known for their studies 
and writings in horticultural subjects. 



VI EXPLANA TION 

In making this book, I have had constantly in mind the 
home-maker himself or herself rather than the professional 
gardener. It is of the greatest importance that we attach 
many persons to the land ; and I am convinced that an in- 
terest in gardening will naturally take the place of many 
desires that are much more difficult to gratify, and that lie 
beyond the reach of the average man or woman. 

It has been my good fortune to have seen amateur and com- 
mercial gardening in all parts of the United States, and I have 
tried to express something of this generality in the book; yet 
my experience, as well as that of my original collaborators, 
is of the northeastern states, and the book is therefore neces- 
sarily written from this region as a base. One gardening book 
cannot be made to apply in its practice in all parts of the 
United States and Canada unless its instructions are so general 
as to be practically useless; but the principles and points of 
view may have wider application. While I have tried to give 
only the soundest and most tested advice, I cannot hope to 
have escaped errors and shortcomings, and I shall be grateful 
to my reader if he will advise me of mistakes or faults that 
he may discover. I shall expect to use such information in the 
making of subsequent editions. 

Of course an author cannot hold himself responsible for 
failures that his reader may suffer. The statements in a book 
of this kind are in the nature of advice, and it may or it may 
not apply in particular conditions, and the success or failure 
is the result mostly of the judgment and carefulness of the 
operator. I hope that no reader of a gardening book will ever 
conceive the idea that reading a book and following it literally 
will make him a gardener. He must always assume his own 
risks, and this will be the first step in his personal progress. 

I should explain that the botanical nomenclature of this 
book is that of the " Cyclopedia of American Horticulture," 
unless otherwise stated. The exceptions are the " trade 



EXPLANATION Vll 

names/' or those used by nurserymen and seedsmen in the sale 
of their stock. 

I should further explain the reason for omitting digraphs and 
using such words as peony, spirea, dracena, cobea. As tech- 
nical Latin formularies, the digraphs must of course be retained, 
as in Pcsonia officinalis, Spircea Thunbergii, Dracama fragrans, 
Coboea scandens; but as Anglicized words of common speech 
it is time to follow the custom of general literature, in which 
the combinations ce and oe have disappeared. This simplifica- 
tion was begun in the " Cyclopedia of American Horticulture " 
and has been continued in other writings. 

L. H. BAILEY. 

Ithaca, New York, 
January 20, 1910. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER I 

What a garden is 



PAGES 

The Point of View . 

3 



CHAPTER II 

The General Plan or Theory of the Place ..... 6-60 

The plan of the grounds 8 

The picture in the landscape 12 

Birds ; and cats 

The planting is part of the design or picture 19 

The flower-growing should be part of the design .... 27 

Defects in flower-growing 28 

Lawn flower-beds 29 

Mower-borders ol 

The old-fashioned garden ° 4 

Contents of the flower-borders 34 

The value of plants may lie in foliage and form rather than in 

bloom oi 

Odd and formal trees 40 

Poplars and the like 41 

Plant-forms 43 

Various specific examples .44 

An example 45 

Another example 4 ' 

A third example .48 

A small back yard 49 

A city lot ... . 50 

General remarks • • • • '54 

Beview . . .' ° 

CHAPTER III 

Execution of Some of the Landscape Features . . . 61-86 

The grading . . . • 

i'x 



x CONTENTS 

PAGES 

The terrace . . . . 62 

The bounding lines ... . . . „ . . .64 

Walks and drives 67 

The question of drainage, curbing, and gutters ... 69 

The materials 73 

Making the borders . . . . . . . . . .74 

Making the lawn 77 

Preparing the ground 77 

The kind of grass 78 

When and how to sow the seed . . . . .80 

Securing a firm sod .81 

The mowing . 82 

Fall treatment 82 

Spring treatment 83 

Watering lawns ......... 83 

Sodding the lawn . . .84 

A combination of sodding and seeding ..... 85 

Sowing with sod . . ... . . . . . 86 

Other ground covers . . 86 

CHAPTER IV 

The Handling or the Land 87-114 

The draining of the land ......... 88 

Trenching and subsoiling . . . . . . . . . 90 

Preparation of the surf ace 92 

The saving of moisture 97 

Hand tools for weeding and subsequent tillage and other hand vwrk 101 

The hoe 101 

Scarifiers ........... 105 

Hand- weed ers 106 

Trowels and their kind 106 

Rollers 108 

Markers 108 

Enriching the land .110 

CHAPTER V 

The Handling of the Plants 115-177 

Sowing the seeds 116 

Propagating by cuttings 118 

Dormant stem-cuttings 118 



CONTENTS 



XI 



Cuttings of roots 

Green cuttings . 

Cuttings of leaves 

General treatment 
Transplanting young seedlings 
Transplanting established plants and trees 

Tub-plants 

When to transplant . 

Depth to transplant . 

Making the rows straight 

Cutting-back ; filling . 

Eemoving very large trees 
Winter protection of 'plants 
Pruning .... 
Tree surgery and protection 

Tree guards 

Mice and rabbits 

Girdled trees 

Repairing street trees 
The grafting of plants 
Keeping records of the plantation 
The storing of fruits and vegetables 
The forcing of plants 

Coldframes 

Hotbeds .... 

Management of hotbeds . 



119 

■'20 
120 
121 
122 
124 
125 
126 
127 
127 
129 
130 
135 
139 
142 
143 
144 
144 
145 
151 
154 
158 
161 
164 
168 
175 



CHAPTER VI 



Protecting Plants from Things that prey on Them 

Screens and covers . 

Fumigating 

Soaking tubers and seeds . 

Spraying .... 

Insecticide spraying formulas 

Fungicide spraying formulas 

Treatment for some of the common insects 

Treatment for some of the common plant diseases 



178-213 
186 
188 
190 
190 
193 
196 
198 
207 



Xll 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER VII 



The Growing of the Ornamental Plants — The Classes 
Plants, and Lists 

Planting for immediate effect . 

The use of "foliage " trees and shrubs 

Windbreaks and screens 

The making of hedges 

The borders 

The floioer-beds 

Bedding effects . 

Plants for subtropical effects 
Aquatic and bog plants . 
Bockeries and alpine plants 



1. Plants for Carpet-beds 
Lists for carpet-beds 



2. The Annual Plants . : 

List of annuals by color of flowers . 
Useful annuals for edgings of beds and walks 
Annuals that continue to bloom after frost 
List of annuals suitable for bedding (that is, , 

color) 

List of annuals by height .... 
Distances for planting annuals 



3. Hardy Herbaceous Perennials . 
Perennial herbs suitable for lawn and '"'■planting 
A brief seasonal flower-garden or border list 

nials . ■ . . . . ! 
One hundred extra-hardy perennial herbs 

4. Bulbs and Tubers 
Fall-planted bulbs .... 
List of outdoor fall-planted bulbs for the 
Winter bidbs . ... 
Summer bulbs ..... 



North 



5. The Shrubbery .... 
LJst of shrubbery plants for the North 
Shrubs for the South 



and for ribbon 
'or ' ' mass 



-beds 



effect 



effects 
of herbaceous peren- 



of 
214-349 

. 215 



of 



CONTENTS xin 

PAGES 

6. Climbing Plants 307 

Annual herbaceous climbers ........ 310 

Perennial herbaceous climbers 3,11 

Woody perennial climbers 314 

Climbing roses 318 

7. Trees for Lawns and Streets 319 

List of hardy deciduous trees for the North 322 

Non-coniferous trees for the South . . . . . , . . 330 

8. Coniferous Evergreen Shrubs and Trees .... 331 

List of shrubby conifers 333 

Arboreous conifers .......... 334 

Conifers for the South • . .336 

9. Window-gardens 336 

The window-box for outside effect 337 

The inside windovj-garden, or " house plants" .... 341 

Bulbs in the windoiv-garden 345 

Watering house plants 347 

Hanging baskets 348 

Aquarium 348 

CHAPTER VIII 

The Growing of the Ornamental Plants — Instructions on Par- 
ticular Kinds . 350-407 

Abutilons, 351; agapanthus, 351 ; alstremeria, 352 ; amaryllis, 
352 ; anemone, 353 ; aralia, 354 ; araucaria, 354 ; auricula, 354 ; 
azaleas, 355 ; begonias, 356 ; cactus, 358 ; caladium, 359 ; calceo- 
laria, 360 ; calla, 360 ; camellias, 361 ; cannas, 361 ; carnations, 
363 ; century plants, 364 ; chrysanthemums, 365 ; cineraria, 367 ; 
clematis, 367,; coleus, 368 ; crocus, 368 ; croton, 369 ; cyclamen, 
370 ; dahlia, 370 ; ferns, 372 ; freesia, 373 ; fuchsia, 373 ; gera- 
nium, 374 ; gladiolus, 374 ; gloxinia, 375 ; grevillea, 376 ; hollyhocks, 
376 ; hyacinths, 377 ; iris, 378 ; lily, 378 ; lily-of-the-valley, 381 ; 
mignonette, 381 ; moon-flowers, 381 ; narcissus, 382 ; oleander, 
383 ; oxalis, 384 ; palms, 384 ; pandanus, 385 ; pansy, 386 ; pelar- 
gonium, 386 ; peony, 387 ; phlox, 388 ; primulas, 389 ; rhododen- 
drons, 390 ; rose, 391 ; smilax, 401 ; stocks, 402 ; sweet pea, 403 ; 
swainsona, 403 ; tuberose, 404 ; tulips, 405 j violet, 406 j wax 
plant, 407. 



xiv CONTENTS 



CHAPTER IX 

PAGES 

The Growing of the Fruit Plants 408-450 

Dwarf fruit-trees 409 

Age and size of trees 410 

Pruning 411 

Thinning the fruit 412 

Washing and scrubbing the trees ....... 414 

Gathering and keeping fruit 414 

Almond, 415 ; apples, 416 ; apricot, 420 ; blackberry, 421 ; 
cherry, 422 ; cranberry, 424 ; currant, 425 ; dewberry, 426 ; fig, 426 ; 
gooseberry, 427 ; grape, 428 ; mulberry, 432 ; nuts, 433 ; orange, 
433 ; peach, 435 ; pear, 437 ; plum, 439 ; quince, 442 ; raspberry, 
443 ; strawberry, 445. 

CHAPTER X 

The Growing of the Vegetable Plants ..... 451-500 
Vegetables for six 454 

The classes of vegetables .......... 456 

The culture of the leading vegetables ...... 461 

Asparagus, 461 ; artichoke, 462 ; artichoke, Jerusalem, 463 ; 
bean, 463; beet, 466; broccoli, 467; brussels sprouts, 467; cab- 
bage, 468 ; carrot, 471 ; cauliflower, 471 ; celeriac, 472 ; celery, 
472; chard, 475 ; chicory, 476 ; chervil, 476 ; collards, 476 ; cives, 477 ; 
corn salad, 477 ; corn, 477 ; cress, 478 ; cucumber, 478 ; dandelion, 
479 ; egg-plant, 480 ; endive, 481 ; garlic, 481 ; horseradish, 481 ; kale, 
482 ; kohlrabi, 483 ; leek, 483 ; lettuce, 483 ; mushroom, 484 ; mus- 
tard, 487 ; muskmelon, 487 ; okra, 488 ; onion, 488 ; parsley, 490 ; 
parsnip, 490 ; pea, 490 ; pepper, 491 ; potato, 492 ; radish, 493 ; 
rhubarb, 493 ; salsify, 494 ; sea-kale, 495 ; sorrel, 495 ; spearmint, 
495 ; spinach, 495 ; squash, 496 ; sweet-potato, 496 ; tomato, 497 ; 
turnips and rutabagas, 498 ; watermelon, 499. 



CHAPTER XI 

Seasonal Reminders 501-526 

For the North 504 

For the South 516 

Index „ 527 



LIST OF PLATES 

PLATE 

I. The open center Frontispiece 

FACING PAGE 

II. The plan of the place 8 

III. Open center treatment in a semi-tropical country . . .20 

IV. Subtropical bedding against a building. Caladiums, cannas, 

abutilons, permanent rhododendrons, and other large stuff, 
with tuberous begonias and balsams between .... 40 
V. A subtropical bed. Center of cannas, with border of Pennise- 
tum longistylum (a grass) started in late February or early 

March 50 

VI. A tree that gives character to a place 70 

VII. Bedding with palms. If a bricked-up pit is made about the 
porch, pot palms may be plunged in it in spring and pot coni- 
fers in winter ; and fall bulbs in tin cans (so that the recepta- 
cles will not split with frost) may be plunged among the 
evergreens .......... 90 

VIII. A well-planted entrance. Common trees and bushes, with 

Boston ivy on the post, and Berberis Thunbergii in front . 120 
IX. A rocky bank covered with permanent informal planting . . 150 
X. A shallow lawn pond, containing water-lilies, variegated sweet 
flag, iris, and subtropical bedding at the rear ; fountain 
covered with parrot's feather (Myriophyllum proserpina- 

coides) 230 

XL The back yard, with summer house, and gardens beyond . . 250 
XII. The back yard, with heavy flower-garden planting . . . 270 

XIII. The pageant of summer. Gardens of C. W. Dowdeswell, Eng- 

land, from a painting by Miss Parsons 290 

XIV. Virginia creeper screen, on an old fence, with wall-flowers 

and hollyhocks in front 307 

XV. Scuppernong grape, the arbor vine of the South. This plate 
shows the noted scuppernongs on Koanoke Island, of which 
the origin is unknown, but which were of great size more 

than one hundred years ago 318 

xv 



XVI 



LIST OF PLATES 



PLATE 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 

XXI. 

XXII. 
XXIII. 
XXIV. 

XXV. 



FACING PAGE 

The flower-garden of China asters with border, one of the 

dusty millers (Centanrea) 330 

The peony. One of the most steadfast of garden flowers . 350 

Cornflower or bachelor's button. Centaurea Cyanus . . 370 
Pyracantha in fruit. One of the best ornamental-fruited 

plants for the middle and milder latitudes .... 390 
A simple but effective window-box, containing geraniums, 

petunias, verbenas, heliotrope, and vines .... 405 

The king of fruits. Newtown as grown in the Pacific country 416 

Wall-training of a pear tree 430 

Cherry currant ......... 445 

Golden bantam sweet corn 477 

The garden radish, grown in fall, of the usual spring sorts . 493 



A MANUAL OF GARDENING 



MANUAL OF GAKDENING 



CHAPTER I 

THE POINT OF VIEW 

Wherever there is soil, plants grow and produce their kind, 
and all plants are interesting; when a person makes a choice 
as to what plants he shall grow in any given place, he becomes 
a gardener or a farmer; and if the conditions are such that 
he cannot make a choice, he may adopt the plants that grow 
there by nature, and by making the most of them may still be 
a gardener or a farmer in some degree. 

Every family, therefore, may have a garden. If there is 
not a foot of land, there are porches or windows. Wherever 
there is sunlight, plants may be made to grow; and one plant 
in a tin-can may be a more helpful and inspiring garden to some 
mind than a whole acre of lawn and flowers may be to another. 

The satisfaction of a garden does not depend on the area, 
nor, happily, on the cost or rarity of the plants. It depends on 
the temper of the person. One must first seek to love plants 
and nature, and then to cultivate the happy peace of mind that 
is satisfied with little. 

In the vast majority of cases a person will be happier if he 
has no rigid and arbitrary notions, for gardens are moodish, 
particularly with the novice. If plants grow and thrive, he 
should be happy; and if the plants that thrive chance not to 
be the ones that he planted, they are plants nevertheless, and 
nature is satisfied with them. 

B 1 



2 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

We are wont to covet the things that we cannot have; but 
we are happier when we love the things that grow because they 
must. A patch of lusty pigweeds, growing and crowding in 
luxuriant abandon, may be a better and more worthy object 
of affection than a bed of coleuses in which every spark of life 
and 'spirit and individuality has been sheared out and sup- 
pressed. The man who worries morning and night about the 
dandelions in the lawn will find great relief in loving the dande- 
lions. Each blossom is worth more than a gold coin, as it 
shines in the exuberant sunlight of the growing spring, and 
attracts the insects to its bosom. Little children like the dan- 
delions: why may not we? Love the things nearest at hand; 
and love intensely. If I were to write a motto over the gate 
of a garden, I should choose the remark that Socrates is said 
to have made as he saw the luxuries in the market, "How much 
there is in the world that I do not want I" 

I verily believe that this paragraph I have just written is 
worth more than all the advice with which I intend to cram the 
succeeding pages, notwithstanding the fact that I have most 
assiduously extracted this advice from various worthy but, 
happily, long-forgotten authors. Happiness is a quality of 
a person, not of a plant or a garden; and the anticipation of 
joy in the writing of a book may be the reason why so many 
books on garden-making have been written. Of course, all 
these books have been good and useful. It would be ungrate- 
ful, at the least, for the present writer to say otherwise; but 
books grow old, and the advice becomes too familiar. The 
sentences need to be transposed and the order of the chapters 
varied, now and then, or interest lags. Or, to speak plainly, 
a new book of advice on handicraft is needed in every decade, 
or perhaps oftener in these days of many publishers. There 
has been a long and worthy procession of these handbooks, — 
Gardiner & Hepburn, M'Mahon, Cobbett — original, pungent, 
versatile Cobbett ! — Fessenden, Squibb, Bridgeman, Sayers, 



THE POINT OF VIEW 3 

Buist, and a dozen more, each one a little richer because the 
others had been written. But even the fact that all books 
pass into oblivion does not deter another hand from making 
still another venture. 

I expect, then, that every person who reads this book will 
make a garden, or will try to make one; but if only tares grow 
where roses are desired, I must remind the reader that at the 
outset I advised pigweeds. The book, therefore, will suit 







1. The ornamental burdock. 



everybody, — the experienced gardener, because it will be a 
repetition of what he already knows ; and the novice, because 
it will apply as well to a garden of burdocks as of onions; 

What a garden is. 

A garden is the personal part of an estate, the area that 
is most intimately associated with the private life of the home. 
Originally, the garden was the area inside the inclosure or lines 
of fortification, in distinction from the unprotected area or 
fields that lay beyond; and this latter area was the particular 
domain of agriculture. This book understands the garden to 



4 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

be that part of the personal or home premises devoted to orna- 
ment, and to the growing of vegetables and fruits. The garden, 
therefore, is an ill-defined demesne; but the reader must not 
make the mistake of defining it by dimensions, for one may 
have a garden in a flower-pot or on a thousand acres. In 
other words, this book declares that every bit of land that is 
not used for buildings, walks, drives, and fences, should be 
planted. What we shall plant — whether sward, lilacs, 
thistles, cabbages, pears, chrysanthemums, or tomatoes — we 
shall talk about as we proceed. 

The only way to keep land perfectly unproductive is to keep 
it moving. The moment the owner lets it alone, the planting 
has begun. In my own garden, this first planting is of pigweeds. 
These may be followed, the next year, by ragweeds, then by 
docks and thistles, with here and there a start of clover and 
grass; and it all ends in June-grass and dandelions. 

Nature does not allow the land to remain bare and idle. 
Even the banks where plaster and lath were dumped two or 
three years ago are now luxuriant with burdocks and sweet 
clover; and yet persons who pass those dumps every day say 
that they can grow nothing in their own yard because the soil 
is so poor! Yet I venture that those same persons furnish 
most of the pigweed seed that I use on my garden. 

The lesson is that there is no soil — where a house would be 
built — so poor that something worth while cannot be grown 
on it. If burdocks will grow, something else will grow; or if 
nothing else will grow, then I prefer burdocks to sand and 
rubbish. 

The burdock is one of the most striking and decorative of 
plants, and a good piece of it against a building or on a rough 
bank is just as useful as many plants that cost money and are dif- 
ficult to grow. I had a good clump of burdock under my study 
window, and it was a great comfort; but the man would persist 
in wanting to cut it down when he mowed the lawn. When I 



THE POINT OF VIEW 5 

remonstrated, he declared that it was nothing but burdock ; 
but I insisted that, so far from being burdock, it was really 
Lappa major, since which time the plant and its offspring have 
enjoyed his utmost respect. And I find that most of my friends 
reserve their appreciation of a plant until they have learned 
its name and its family connections. 

The dump-place that I mentioned has a surface area of nearly 
one hundred and fifty square feet, and I find that it has grown 
over two hundred good plants of one kind or another this year. 
This is more than my gardener accomplished on an equal area, 
with manure and water and a man to help. The difference 
was that the plants on the dump wanted to grow, and the 
imported plants in the garden did not want to grow. It was 
the difference between a willing horse and a balky horse. If 
a person wants to show his skill, he may choose the balky 
plant ; but if he wants fun and comfort in gardening, he would 
better choose the willing one. 

I have never been able to find out when the burdocks and 
mustard were planted on the dump; and I am sure that they 
were never hoed or watered. Nature practices a wonderfully 
rigid economy. For nearly half the summer she even refused 
rain to the plants, but still they thrived; yet I staid home 
from a vacation one summer that I might keep my plants from 
dying. I have since learned that if the plants in my hardy 
borders cannot take care of themselves for a time, they are 
little comfort to me. 

The joy of garden-making lies in the mental attitude and in 
the sentiments. 



CHAPTER II 

THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 

Having now discussed the most essential elements of gar- 
dening, we may give attention to such minor features as the 
actual way in which a satisfying garden is to be planned and 
executed. 

Speaking broadly, a person will get from a garden what he 
puts into it; and it is of the first importance, therefore, that a 
clear conception of the work be formulated at the outset. I 
do not mean to say that the garden will always turn out what 
it was desired that it should be; but the failure to turn out 
properly is usually some fault in the first plan or some neglect 
in execution. 

Sometimes the disappointment in an ornamental garden is a 
result of confusion of ideas as to what a garden is for. One of 
my friends was greatly disappointed on returning to his garden 
early in September to find that it was not so full and florif erous 
as when he left it in July. He had not learned the simple lesson 
that even a flower-garden should exhibit the natural progress 
of the season. If the garden begins to show ragged places and 
to decline in late August or early September, it is what occurs 
in all surrounding vegetation. The year is maturing. The 
garden ought to express the feeling of the different months. 
The failing leaves and expended plants are therefore to be 
looked on, to some extent at least, as the natural order and des- 
tiny of a good garden. 

These attributes are well exhibited in the vegetable-garden. 
In the spring, the vegetable-garden is a model of neatness and 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 7 

precision. The rows are straight. There are no missing plants. 
The earth is mellow and fresh. Weeds are absent. One 
takes his friends to the garden, and he makes pictures of it. 
By late June or early July, the plants have begun to sprawl 
and to get out of shape. The bugs have taken some of them. 
The rows are no longer trim and precise. The earth is hot 
and dry. The weeds are making headway. By August and 
September, the garden has lost its early regularity and freshness. 
The camera is put aside. The visitors are not taken to it: 
the gardener prefers to go alone to find the melon or the 
tomatoes, and he comes away as soon as he has secured his 
product. Now, as a matter of fact, the garden has been going 
through its regular seasonal growth. It is natural that it be- 
come ragged. It is not necessary that weeds conquer it; but 
I suspect that it would be a very poor garden, and certainly 
an uninteresting one, if it retained the dress of childhood at 
the time when it should develop the personalities of age. 

There are two types of outdoor gardening in which the prog- 
ress of the season is not definitely expressed, — in the carpet- 
bedding kind, and in the subtropical kind. I hope that my 
reader will get a clear distinction in these matters, for it is 
exceedingly important. The carpet-bedding gardening is 
the making of figure-beds in house-leeks and achyranthes 
and coleus and sanitalia, and other things that can be grown 
in compact masses and possibly sheared to keep them within 
place and bounds; the reader sees these beds in perfection in 
some of the parks and about florists' establishments; he will 
understand at once that they are not meant in any way to ex- 
press the season, for the difference between them in September 
and June is only that they may be more perfect in September. 
The subtropical gardening (plates IV and V) is the planting out 
of house-grown stuff, in order to produce given effects, of such 
plants as palms, dracenas, crotons, caladiums, papyrus, together 
with such luxuriant things" as dahlias and cannas and large 



8 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

ornamental grasses and castor beans; these plants are to pro- 
duce effects quite foreign to the expression of a northern land- 
scape, and they are usually at their best and are most luxuriant 
when overtaken by the fall frosts. 

Now, the home gardener usually relies on plants that more 
or less come and go with the seasons. He pieces out and 
extends the season, to be sure ; but a garden with pansies, 
pinks, sweet william, roses, sweet peas, petunias, marigolds, 
salpiglossis, sweet sultan, poppies, zinnias, asters, cosmos, 
and the rest, is a progress-of-the-season garden, nevertheless; 
and if it is a garden of herbaceous perennials, it still more 
completely expresses the time-of-year. 

My reader will now consider, perhaps, whether he would 
have his garden accent and heighten his natural year from 
spring to fall, or whether he desires to thrust into his year a 
feeling of another order of vegetation. Either is allowable; 
but the gardener should distinguish at the outset. 

I wish to suggest to my reader, also, that it is possible for 
the garden to retain some interest even in the winter months. 
I sometimes question whether it is altogether wise to clear 
out the old garden stems too completely and too smoothly in 
the fall, and thereby obliterate every mark of it for the winter 
months ; but however this may be, there are two ways by 
which the garden year may be extended: by planting things 
that bloom very late in fall and others that bloom very early 
in spring; by using freely, in the backgrounds, of bushes and 
trees that have interesting winter characters. 

The "plan of the grounds (see Plate II). 

One cannot expect satisfaction in the planting and develop- 
ing of a home area unless he has a clear conception of what is 
to be done. This necessarily follows, since the pleasure that 
one derives from any enterprise depends chiefly on the definite- 
ness of his ideals and his ability to develop them. The home- 




i plan of the place. The arrangement of the property (which is in New York) is 
determined by an existing woodland to the left or southeast of the house and a natural 
opening to the southwest of the house. The house is colonial, and the entire treatment 
is one of considerable simplicity. Wild or woodland gardens have been developed to the 
right and left of the entrance, the latter or entrance lawns being left severely simple and 
plain in their treatment. To the rear of the house a turf terrace raised three steps above 
the general grade of the lawn leads to a general lawn terminated by a small garden 
exedra or teahouse with a fountain in its center, and to two shrub gardens forming 
interesting and closed pockets of lawn. The stable and vegetable gardens are located to 
the south of the house in a natural opening in the woodland. The design is made by a 
professional landscape architect. 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 9 

maker should develop his plan before he attempts to develop 
his place. He must study the various subdivisions in order 
that the premises may meet all his needs. He should determine 
the locations of the leading features of the place and the rela- 
tive importance to be given to the various parts of it, — as 
of the landscape parts, the ornamental areas, the vegetable- 
garden, and the fruit plantation. 

The details of the planting may be determined in part as 
the place develops; it is only the structural features and pur- 
poses that need to be determined beforehand in most small 
properties. The incidental modifications that may be made 
in the planting from time to time keep the interest alive and 
allow the planter to gratify his desire to experiment with new 
plants and new methods. 

It must be understood that I am now speaking of ordinary 
home grounds which the home-maker desires to improve by 
himself. If the area is large enough to present distinct 
landscape featureSj it is always best to employ a landscape 
architect of recognized merit, in the same spirit that one 
would employ an architect. The details, however, may even 
then be filled in by the owner, if he is so inclined, following 
out the plan that the landscape architect makes. 

It is desirable to have a definite plan on paper (drawn to 
scale) for the location of the leading features of the place. 
These features are the residence, the out-houses, the walks and 
drives, the service areas (as clothes yards), the border planting, 
flower-garden, vegetable-garden, and fruit-garden. It should 
not be expected that the map plan can be followed in every 
detail, but it will serve as a general guide; and if it is made 
on a large enough scale, the different kinds of plants can be 
located in their proper positions, and a record of the place be 
kept. It is nearly always unsatisfactory, for both owner and 
designer, if a plan of the place is made without a personal 
inspection of the area. Lines that look well on a map may not 



10 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




adjust themselves readily to the varying contours of the place 

itself, and the location of the features inside the grounds will 

depend also in a very large measure on the objects that lie 
outside it. For example, all interesting 
and bold views should be brought into the 
place, and all unsightly objects in the im- 
mediate vicinity should be planted out. 

A plan of a back yard of a narrow city 
lot is given in Fig. 2, showing the heavy 
border planting of trees and shrubs, with 
the skirting border of flowers. In the 
front are two large trees, that are desired 
for shade. It will readily be seen from this 
plan how extensive the area for flowers 
becomes when they are placed along such 
a devious border. More color effect can 
be got from such an arrangement of the 
flowers than could be secured if the whole 

area were planted to flower-beds. 

A contour map plan of a very rough piece of ground is shown 

in Fig. 3. The sides of the place are high, and it becomes 

necessary to carry a walk through the 

middle area ; and on either side of 

the front, it skirts the banks. Such 

a plan is usually unsightly on paper, 

but may nevertheless fit special cases 

very well. The plan is inserted here 

for the purpose of illustrating the fact 

that a plan that will work on the 

ground does not necessarily work on 

a map. 

In charting a place, it is important to locate the points from 

which the walks are to start, and at which they are to emerge 

from the grounds. These two points are then joined by direct 



2. Diagram of a back 
yard. 




3. Plan of a rough area. 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 11 



Hoacl 



and simple curves; and alongside the walks, especially in an- 
gles or bold curves, planting may be inserted. 

A suggestion for school premises on a four-corners, and 
which the pupils enter from three directions, is made in Fig. 4. 
The two playgrounds are separated by a broken group of 
bushes extending from the building to the rear boundary; 
but, in general, the spaces are kept open, and the heavy 
border-masses clothe , 

the place and make | 

it home-like. The 
lineal extent of the 
group margins is as- 
tonishingly large, 
and along all these 
margins flowers may 
be planted, if de- 
sired. 

If there is only 
six feet between a 
schoolhouse and the 
fence, there is still 
room for a border of 
shrubs. This border 
should be between 
the walk and the 
fence, — on the very boundary, — not between the walk and 
the building, for in the latter case the planting divides the 
premises and weakens the effect. A space two feet wide will 
allow of an irregular wall of bushes, if tall buildings do not cut 
out the light ; and if the area is one hundred feet long, thirty 
to fifty kinds of shrubs and flowers can be grown to perfection, 
and the school-grounds will be practically no smaller for the 
plantation. 

One cannot make a plan of a place until he knows what he 




4. Suggestion for a school-ground on a four- 
corners. 



12 , MANUAL OF GARDENING 

wants to do with the property; and therefore we may devote 
the remainder of this chapter to developing the idea in the lay- 
out of the premises rather than to the details of map-making 
and planting. 

Because I speak of the free treatment of garden spaces in this 
book it must not be inferred that any reflection is intended on. 
the "formal" garden. There are many places in which the for- 
mal or "architect's garden" is much to be desired; but each 
of these cases should be treated wholly by itself and be made a 
part of the architectural setting of the place. These ques- 
tions are outside the sphere of this book. All formal gardens 
are properly individual studies. 

All very special types of garden design are naturally excluded 
from a book of this kind, such types, for example, as Japanese 
gardening. Persons who desire to develop these specialties will 
secure the services of persons who are skilled in them; and 
there are also books and magazine articles to which they 
may go. 

The picture in the landscape. 

The deficiency in most home grounds is not so much that 
there is too little planting of trees and shrubs as that this plant- 
ing is meaningless. Every yard should be a picture. That is, 
the area should be set off from other areas, and it should have 
such a character that the observer catches its entire effect and 
purpose without stopping to analyze its parts. The yard should 
be one thing, one area, with every feature contributing its part 
to one strong and homogeneous effect. 

These remarks will become concrete if the reader turns his eye 
to Figs. 5 and 6. The former represents a common type of 
planting of front yards. The bushes and trees are scattered 
promiscuously over the area. Such a yard has no purpose, no 
central idea. It shows plainly that the planter had no con- 
structive conception, no grasp of any design, and no apprecia- 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 13 



tion of the fundamental elements of the beauty of landscape. 
Its only merit is the fact that trees and shrubs have been 
planted; and this, to most minds, comprises the essence and 
sum of the ornamentation of grounds. Every tree and bush 
individual alone, 



is an 

unattended, disconnected 
from its environments, 
and, therefore, meaning- 
less. Such a yard is only 
a nursery. 

The other plan (Fig. 6) 
is a picture. The eye 
catches its meaning at 
once. The central idea is 






% 4> 



n£r 



t$ 






The common or nursery way of 
planting. 



the residence, with a free and open greensward in front of it. 
The same trees and bushes that were scattered haphazard over 
Fig. 5 are massed into a framework to give effectiveness to the 
picture of home and comfort. This style of planting makes a 
landscape, even though the area be no larger than a parlor. 
The other style is only a collection of curious plants. The one 

has an instant and 
abiding pictorial ef- 
fect, which is restful 
and satisfying: the 
observer exclaims, 
"What a beautiful 
home this is!" The 
other piques one's 
curiosity, obscures 

6. The proper or pictorial type of planting. ^q residence di- 

vides and distracts the attention: the observer exclaims, "What 
excellent lilac bushes are these !" 

An inquiry into the causes of the unlike impressions that one 
receives from a given landscape and from a painting of it 





14 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

explains the subject admirably. One reason why the picture 
appeals to us more than the landscape is because the picture 
is condensed, and the mind becomes acquainted with its entire 
purpose at once, while the landscape is so broad that the 
individual objects at first fix the attention, and it is only by a 
process of synthesis that the unity of the landscape finally be- 
comes apparent. This is admirably illustrated in photographs. 
One of the first surprises that the novice experiences in the use 
of the camera is the discovery that very tame scenes become in- 
teresting and often even spirited in the photograph. But there 
is something more than mere condensation in this vitalizing and 
beautifying effect of the photograph or the painting : individual 
objects are so much reduced that they no longer appeal to us 
as distinct subjects, and however uncouth they may be in the 
reality, they make no impression in the picture; the thin and 
sere sward may appear rather like a closely shaven lawn or a 
new-mown meadow. And again, the picture sets a limit to the 
scene; it frames it, and thereby cuts off all extraneous and con- 
fusing or irrelevant landscapes. 

These remarks are illustrated in the aesthetics of landscape gar- 
dening. It is the artist's one desire to make pictures in the land- 
scape. This is done in two ways : by the form of plantations, 
and by the use of vistas. He will throw his plantations into 
such positions that open and yet more or less confined areas 
of greensward are presented to the observer at various points. 
This picture-like opening is nearly or quite devoid of small or in- 
dividual objects, which usually destroy the unity of such areas 
and are meaningless in themselves. A vista is a narrow opening 
or view between plantations to a distant landscape. It cuts up 
the broad horizon into portions that are readily cognizable. It 
frames parts of the country-side. The verdurous sides of the 
planting are the sides of the frame; the foreground is the bottom, 
and the sky is the top. It is of the utmost importance that 
good views be left or secured from the best windows of the house 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 15 

(not forgetting the kitchen window) ; in fact, the placing of the 
house may often be determined by the views that may be ap- 
propriated. 

If a landscape is a picture, it must have a canvas. This 
canvas is the greensward. Upon this, the artist paints with 
tree and bush and flower as the painter does upon his canvas with 
brush and pigments. The opportunity for artistic composition 
and design is nowhere so great as in the landscape garden, be- 
cause no other art has such a limitless field for the expression 
of its emotions. It is not strange, if this be true, that there 
have been few great landscape gardeners, and that, falling short 
of art, the landscape gardener too often works in the sphere of 
the artisan. There can be no rules for landscape gardening, any 
more than there can be for painting or sculpture. The operator 
may be taught how to hold the brush or strike the chisel or 
plant the tree, but he remains an operator; the art is intellec- 
tual and emotional and will not confine itself in precepts. 

The making of a good and spacious lawn, then, is the very 
first practical consideration in a landscape garden. 

The lawn provided, the gardener conceives what is the domi- 
nant and central feature in the place, and then throws the entire 
premises into subordination to this feature. In home grounds 
this central feature is the house. To scatter trees and bushes 
over the area defeats the fundamental purpose of the place, — 
the purpose to make every part of the grounds lead up to the 
home and to accentuate its homelikeness. 

A house must have a background if it is to become a home. 
A house that stands on a bare plain or hill is a part of the universe, 
not a part of a home. Recall the cozy little farm-house that is 
backed by a wood or an orchard; then compare some pretentious 
structure that stands apart from all planting. Yet how many 
are the farm-houses that stand as stark and cold against the sky 
as if they were competing with the moon! We would not be- 
lieve it possible for a man to live in a house twenty-five years and 



16 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



not, by accident, allow some tree to grow, were it not that it 
is so! 

Of course these remarks about the lawn are meant for those 
countries where greensward is the natural ground cover. In 
the South and in arid countries, greensward is not the prevail- 
ing feature of the landscape, and in these regions the landscape 
design may take on a wholly different character, if the work is 
to be nature-like. We have not yet developed other concep- 
tions of landscape work to any perfect extent, and we inject the 




English greensward treatment even into deserts. We may 
look for the time when a brown landscape garden may be made 
in a brown country ; and it may be good art not to attempt a 
broad open center in regions in which undergrowth rather than 
sod is the natural ground cover. In parts of the United States 
we are developing a good Spanish- American architecture ; per- 
haps we may develop a recognized comparable landscape treat- 
ment as an artistic expression. 



Birds ; and cats. 

The picture in the landscape is not complete without birds, 
and the birds should comprise more species than English 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 17 



sparrows. If one is to have birds on his premises, he must 
(1) attract them and (2) protect them. 

One attracts birds by providing places in which they may 
nest. The free border plantings have distinct advantages in 
attracting chipping sparrows, catbirds, and other species. The 
bluebirds, house wrens, and martins may be attracted by 
boxes in which they can build. 

One may attract birds by feeding them and supplying water. 
Suet for woodpeckers and others, grain and crumbs for other 




8. A home 



kinds, and taking care not to frighten or molest them, will soon 
win the confidence of the birds. A slowly running or dripping 
fountain, with a good rim on which they may perch, will also 
attract them; and it is no mean enjoyment to watch the 
birds at bathing. Or, if one does not care to go to the ex- 
pense of a bird fountain, he may supply their wants by means 
of a shallow dish of water set on the lawn. 

The birds will need protection from cats. There is no more 
reason why cats should roam at will and uncontrolled than that 
dogs or horses or poultry should be allowed unlimited license. 
A cat away from home is a trespasser and should be so treated. 



18 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

A person has no more right to inflict a cat on a neighborhood than 
to inflict a goat or rabbits or any other nuisance. All persons 
who keep cats should feel the same responsibility for them that 
they feel for other property; and they should be willing to for- 
feit their property right when they forfeit their control. The 
cats not only destroy birds, but they break the peace. The 
caterwauling at night will not be permitted in well-governed 
communities any more than the shooting of fire-arms or vicious 
talking will be allowed : all night-roaming cats should be gath- 
ered in, just as stray dogs and tramps are provided for. 

I do not dislike cats, but I desire to see them kept at home and 
within control. If persons say that they cannot keep them on 
their own premises, then these persons should not be allowed to 
have them. A bell on the cat will prevent it from capturing old 
birds, and this may answer a good purpose late in the season; 
but it will not stop the robbing of nests or the taking of young 
birds, and here is where the greatest havoc is wrought. 

It is often asserted that cats must roam in order that rats 
and mice may be reduced ; but probably few house mice and 
few rats are got by wandering cats ; and, again, many cats are 
not mousers. There are other ways of controlling rats and 
mice ; or if cats are employed for this purpose, see that they 
are restricted to the places where the house rats and mice are 
to be found. 

Many persons like squirrels about the place, but they cannot 
expect to have both birds and squirrels unless very special pre- 
cautions are taken. 

The English or house sparrow drives away the native birds, 
although he is himself an attractive inhabitant in winter, 
particularly where native birds are not resident. The English 
sparrow should be kept in reduced numbers. This can be 
easily accomplished by poisoning them in winter (when other 
birds are not endangered) with wheat soaked in strychnine 
water. The contents of 'one of the eighth-ounce vials of strych- 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 19 

nine that may be secured at a drug store is added to sufficient 
water to cover a quart of wheat. Let the wheat stand in the 
poison water twenty-four to forty-eight hours (but not long 
enough for the grains to sprout), then dry the wheat thoroughly. 
It cannot be distinguished from ordinary wheat, and sparrows 
usually eat it freely, particularly if they are in the habit of eat- 
ing scattered grain and crumbs. Of course, the greatest cau- 
tion must be exercised that in the use of such highly poisonous 
materials, accidents do not occur with other animals or with 
human beings. 

The planting is part of the design or picture. 

If the reader catches the full meaning of these pages, he has 
acquired some of the primary conceptions in landscape garden- 
ing. The suggestion will grow upon him day by day; and if he is 
of an observing turn of mind, he will find that this simple lesson 
will revolutionize his habit of thought respecting the planting 
of grounds and the beauty of landscapes. He will see that a bush 
or flower-bed that is no part of any general purpose or design — 
that is, which does not contribute to the making of a picture 
— might better never have been planted. For myself, I would 
rather have a bare and open pasture than such a yard as that 
shown in Fig. 9, even though it contained the choicest plants 
of every land. The pasture would at least be plain and restful 
and unpretentious; but the yard would be full of effort and 
fidget. 

Reduced to a single expression, all this means that the great- 
est artistic value in planting lies in the effect of the mass, and 
not in the individual plant. A mass has the greater value 
because it presents a much greater range and variety of forms, 
colors, shades, and textures, because it has sufficient extent or 
dimensions to add structural character to a place, and because 
its features are so continuous and so well blended that the mind 
is not distracted by incidental and irrelevant ideas. Two 




20 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 21 



pictures will illustrate all this. Figures 10, 11 are pictures of 
natural copses. The former stretches along a field and makes a 




10. A native fence-row. 

lawn of a bit of meadow which lies in front of it. The landscape 
has become so small and so well defined by this bank of verdure 
that it has a familiar and personal feeling. The great, bare, 
open meadows are too 
ill-defined and too ex- 
tended to give any do- 
mestic feeling ; but here 
is a part of the meadow 
set off into an area 
that one can compass 
with his affections. 

These masses in 
Figs. 10, 11, and 12 
have their own intrin- 
sic merits, as well as their office in defining a bit of nature. One 
is attracted by the freedom of arrangement, the irregularity of 




1 1 . Birds build their nests here. 





A 


% 


\ 




\\ 


V V 






\"~ 



-;;;'--SW 







aW 



22 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE rLACE 23 

sky-line, the bold bays and promontories, and the infinite play 
of light and shade. The observer is interested in each because 
it has character, or features, that no other mass in all the world 
possesses. He knows that the birds build their nests in the 
tangle and the rabbits find it a covert. 

Now let the reader turn to Fig. 9, which is a picture of an 
" improved" city yard. Here there is no structural outline to 
the planting, no defining of the area, no continuous flow of the 




>^^,s 


'^'j^ : X~ 


''ClJt" ■•■" »"W. :''"'"■ ■ 


]/,. 




]i v t'. 


,.' i} , { 











% 



13. An open treatment of a school-ground. More trees might be placed in the 

area, if desired. 

form and color. Every bush is what every other one is or may 
be, and there are hundreds like them in the same town. The 
birds shun them. Only the bugs find any happiness in them. 
The place has no fundamental design or idea, no lawn upon 
which a picture may be constructed. This yard is like a 
sentence or a conversation in which every word is equally 
emphasized. 

In bold contrast with this yard is the open-center treatment 
in Fig. 13. Here there is pictorial effect; and there is opportu- 



24 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



nity along the borders to distribute trees and shrubs that may 

be desired as individual specimens. 

The motive that shears the trees also razes the copse, in order 

that the gardener or "improver" may show his art. Compare 

Figs. 14 and 15. Many 
persons seem to fear that 
they will never be known 
to the world unless they 
expend a great amount of 
muscle or do something 
emphatic or spectacular; 
and their fears are usually 
well founded. 

It is not enough that 
trees and bushes be planted 
in masses. They must be 
kept in masses by letting 



14. A rill much as nature made it. 

them grow freely in a natu- 
ral way. The pruning- 
knif e is the most inveterate 
enemy of shrubbery. Pic- 
tures 16 and 17 illustrate 
what I mean. The former 
represents a good group of 
bushes so far as arrange- 
ment is concerned, but it 
has been ruined by the 
shears. The attention of 
the observer is instantly arrested by the individual bushes. 
Instead of one free and expressive object, there are several stiff 





15. 



A rill " improved," so that it will not 
look " ragged" and unkempt. 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 25 

and expressionless ones. If the observer stops to consider his 
own thoughts when he comes upon such a collection, he will 




16. The making of a good group, but spoiled by the pruning shears. 

likely find himself counting the bushes; or, at least, he will 
be making mental comparisons of the various bushes, and 




17. The three guardsmen. 

wondering why they are not all sheared to be exactly alike. 
Figure 17 shows how the same "artist" has treated two deut- 



26 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



zias and a juniper. Much the same effect could have been 
secured, and with much less trouble, by laying two flour barrels 
end to end and standing a third one between them. 

I must hasten 
to say that I have 
not the slightest 
objection to the 
shearing of trees. 
The only trouble 
is in calling the 
practice art and 
in putting the 
trees where peo- 
ple must see them 
(unless they are 
part of a recog- 
nized formal-gar- 
den design). If 
the operator sim- 
ply calls the busi- 
ness shearing, and 
puts the things 
where he and oth- 
ers who like them 
may see them, 
objection could 
not be raised. 
Some persons like 
painted stones, others iron bulldogs :n the front yard and 
the word " welcome" worked into the door-mat, and others 
like barbered trees. So long as these likes are purely per- 
sonal, it would seem to be better taste to put such curiosities 
in the back yard, where the owner may admire them without 
molestation. 




j f W 



18. A bit of semi-rustic work built into a native growth. 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 27 

There is a persistent desire among workmen to shear and to 
trim : it displays their industry. It is a great thing to be able 
to allow the freedom of nature to remain. The artist often 
builds his structures into a native planting (as in Fig. 18) rather 
than to trust himself to produce a good result by planting on 
razed surfaces. 

In this discussion, I have tried to enforce the importance of 
the open center in non-formal home grounds in greensward 
regions. Of course this does not mean that there may not be 
central planting in particular cases where the conditions dis- 
tinctly call for it nor that there rriay not be trees on the lawn. 
If one has the placing of the trees, he may see that they are not 
scattered aimlessly; but if good trees are already growing on 
the place, it would be folly to think of removing them merely 
because they are not in the best ideal positions; in such case, it 
may be very necessary to adapt the treatment of the area to the 
trees. The home-maker should always consider, also, the plant- 
ing of a few trees in such places as to shade and protect the resi- 
dence: the more closely they can be made a part of the general 
design or handling of the place, the better the results will be. 

The flower-growing should be part of the design. 

I do not mean to discourage the use of brilliant flowers and 
bright foliage and striking forms of vegetation; but these things 
are never primary considerations in a good domain. The struc- 
tural elements of the place are designed first. The flanking and 
bordering masses are then planted. Finally the flowers and 
accessories are put in, as a house is painted after it is built. 
Flowers appear to best advantage when seen against a back- 
ground of foliage, and they are then, also, an integral part of 
the picture. The flower-garden, as such, should be at the rear or 
side of a place, as all other personal appurtenances are; but 
flowers and bright leaves may be freely scattered along the 
borders and near the foliage masses. 



28 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

It is a common saying that many persons have no love or 
appreciation of flowers, but it is probably nearer to the truth to 
say that no person is wholly lacking in this respect. Even those 
persons who declare that they care nothing for flowers are gen- 
erally deceived by their dislike of flower-beds and the conven- 
tional methods of flower-growing. I know many persons who 
stoutly deny any liking for flowers, but who, nevertheless, are 
rejoiced with the blossoming of the orchards and the purpling 
of the clover fields. The fault may not lie so much with the 
persons themselves as with the methods of growing and display- 
ing the flowers. 

Defects in flower-growing. 

The greatest defect with our flower-growing is the stinginess 
of it. We grow our flowers as if they were the choicest rarities, 
to be coddled in a hotbed or under a bell-jar, and then to be ex- 
hibited as single specimens in some little pinched and ridiculous 
hole cut in the turf, or perched upon an ant-hill that some 
gardener has laboriously heaped on a lawn. Nature, on the 
other hand, grows many of her flowers in the most luxurious 
abandon, and one can pick an armful without offense. She 
grows her flowers in earnest, as a man grows a crop of corn. 
One can revel in the color and the fragrance and be satisfied. 

The next defect with our flower-growing is the flower-bed. 
Nature has no time to make flower-bed designs: she is busy 
growing flowers. And, then, if she were given to flower-beds, 
the whole effect would be lost, for she could no longer be luxu- 
rious and wanton, and if a flower were picked her whole 
scheme might be upset. Imagine a geranium-bed or a coleus- 
bed, with its wonderful " design," set out into a wood or in a 
free and open landscape! Even the birds would laugh at it! 

What I want to say is that we should grow flowers freely 
when we make a flower-garden. We should have enough of them 
to make the effort worth the while. I sympathize with the 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 29 

man who likes sunflowers. There are enough of them to be worth 
looking at. They fill the eye. Now show this man ten feet 
square of pinks or asters, or daisies, all growing free and easy and 
he will tell you that he likes them. All this has a particular ap- 
plication to the farmer, who is often said to dislike flowers. 
He grows potatoes and buckwheat and weeds by the acre : two 
or three unhappy pinks or geraniums are not enough to make 
an impression. 

Lawn flower-beds. 

The easiest way to spoil a good lawn is to put a flower-bed in it ; 
and the most effective way in which to show off flowers to the 

'•'fcfe^llw ■• 






Se. -wSs.^&mmSK^m.wx " ' 






'".iiJllllM- 



19. Hole-in-the-ground gardening. 

least advantage is to plant them in a bed in the greensward. 
Flowers need a background. We do not hang our pictures on 
fence-posts. If flowers are to be grown on a lawn, let them be of 
the hardy kind, which can be naturalized in the sod and which 
grow freely in the tall unmown grass ; or else perennials of such 
nature that they make attractive clumps by themselves. Lawns 
should be free and generous, but the more they are cut up and 
worried with trivial effects, the smaller and meaner they look. 

But even if we consider these lawn flower-beds wholly apart 
from their surroundings, we must admit that they are at best 



30 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



unsatisfactory. It generally amounts to this, that we have four 
months of sparse and downcast vegetation, one month of limp 
and frost-bitten plants, and seven months of bare earth (Fig. 19). 
I am not now opposing the carpet-beds which professional gar- 
deners make in parks and other museums. I like museums, 
and some of the carpet-beds and set pieces are " fearfully and 
wonderfully made" (see Fig. 20). I am directing my remarks 




20. Worth paying admittance price to see ! 

to those humble home-made flower-beds that are so common in 
lawns of country and city homes alike. These beds are cut from 
the good fresh turf, often in the most fantastic designs, and are 
filled with such plants as the women of the place may be able 
to carry over in cellars or in the window. The plants them- 
selves may look very well in pots, but when they are turned 
out of doors, they have a sorry time for a month adapting 
themselves to the sun and winds, and it is generally well on 
towards midsummer before they begin to cover the earth. 
During all these weeks they have demanded more time and 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 31 

labor than would have been needed to care for a plantation of 
much greater size and which would have given flowers every 
day from the time the birds began to nest in the spring until 
the last robin had flown in November. 



Flower-borders. 

We should acquire the 
flower-border. The border 
spoken sets bounds 
one's own. The per- 
on it. Along these 
by the corners of 
the residence or in 
front of porches — 
these are places for 
flowers. Ten flow- 
ers against 



habit of speaking of the 
planting of which we have 
to the place, and makes it 
son lives inside his place, not 
borders, against groups, often 




An artist's flower- 
border. 



#r 



a background are more 
effective than a hundred 
in the open yard. 

I have asked a professional artist, Mr. Mathews, to draw me 
the kind of a flower-bed that he likes. It is shown in Fig. 21. 



32 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



It is a border, — a strip of land two or three feet wide along 
a fence. This is the place where pigweeds usually grow. Here 




22. Petunias against a back- 
ground of osiers. 

he has planted marigolds, gladiolus, golden rod, wild asters, 
China asters, and — best of all — hollyhocks. Any one would 




23. A sowing of flowers along a marginal planting. 

like that flower-garden. It has some of that local and indefin- 
able charm that always attaches to an " old-fashioned garden" 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 33 

with its medley of form and color. Nearly every yard has some 
such strip of land along a rear walk or fence or against a build- 
ing. It is the easiest thing to plant it, — ever so much easier 




24. An open back yard. Flowers may be thrown in freely along the borders, 
but they would spoil the lawn if placed in its center. 

than digging the characterless geranium bed into the center 
of an inoffensive lawn. The suggestions are carried further in 
Figs. 22 to 25. 




25. A flower-garden at the rear or one side of the place. 

D 



34 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

The old-fashioned garden. 

Speaking of the old-fashioned garden recalls one of William 
Falconer's excellent paragraphs (" Gardening/' November 15, 
1897, p. 75): " We tried it in Schenley Park this year. Weneeded 
a handy dumping ground, and hit on the head of a deep ravine 
between two woods; into it we dumped hundreds upon hun- 
dreds of wagon loads of rock and clay, filling it near to the top, 
then surfaced it with good soil. Here we planted some shrubs, 
and broadcast among them set out scarlet poppies, eschscholzias, 
dwarf nasturtiums, snapdragons, pansies, marigolds, and all 
manner of hardy herbaceous plants, having enough of each sort 
to make a mass of its kind and color, and the effect was fine. 
In the middle was a plantation of hundreds of clumps of Japan 
and German irises interplanted, thence succeeded by thousands 
of gladioli, and banded with montbretias, from which we had 
flowers till frost. The steep face of this hill was graded a lit- 
tle and a series of winding stone steps set into it, making the 
descent into the hollow quite easy; the stones were the rough 
uneven slabs secured in blasting the rocks when grading in other 
parts of the park, and both along outer edges of the steps 
and the sides of the upper walk a wide belt of moss pink was 
planted; and the banks all about were planted with shrubs, 
vines, wild roses, columbines, and other plants. More cameras 
and kodaks were leveled by visitors at this piece of gardening 
than at any other spot in the park, and still we had acres of 
painted summer beds." 

Contents of the flower-borders. 

There is no prescribed rule as to what one should put into these 
informal flower-borders. Put in them the plants you like. 
Perhaps the greater part of them should be perennials that come 
up of themselves every spring, and that are hardy and reliable. 
Wild flowers are particularly effective. Every one knows that 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 35 

many of the native herbs of woods and glades are more attract- 
ive than some of the most prized garden flowers. The greater 
part of these native flowers grow readily in cultivation, some- 
times even in places which, in soil and exposure, are much un- 
like their native haunts. Many of them make thickened roots, 
and they may be safely transplanted at any time after the 
flowers have passed. To most persons the wild flowers are 
less known than many exotics that have smaller merit, and 
the extension of cultivation is constantly tending to annihilate 
them. Here, then, in the informal flower-border, is an oppor- 
tunity to rescue them. Then one may sow in freely of easy- 
growing annuals, as marigolds, China asters, petunias and 
phloxes, and sweet peas. 

One of the advantages of these borders lying at the boundary 
is that they are always ready to receive more plants, unless 
they are full. That is, their symmetry is not marred if some 
plants are pulled out and others are put in. And if the weeds 
now and then get a start, very little harm is done. Such a 
border half full of weeds is handsomer than the average hole-in- 
the-lawn geranium bed. An ample border may receive wild 
plants every month in the year when the frost is out of the 
ground. Plants are dug in the woods or fields, whenever one 
is on an excursion, even if in July. The tops are cut off, the 
roots kept moist until they are placed in the border; most of 
these much-abused plants will grow. To be sure, one will secure 
some weeds ; but then, the weeds are a part of the collection ! Of 
course, some plants will resent this treatment, but the border 
may be a happy family, and be all the better and more personal 
because it is the result of moments of relaxation. Such a border 
has something new and interesting every month of the growing 
season; and even in the winter the tall clumps of grasses and 
aster-stems hold their banners above the snow and are a source 
of delight to every frolicsome bevy of snowbirds. 

I have spoken of a weedland to suggest how simple and easy 



36 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



a thing it is to make an attractive mass-plantation. One may 
make the most of a rock (Fig. 26) or bank, or other undesirable 
feature of the place. Dig up the ground and make it rich, and 
then set plants in it. You will not get it to suit you the first 
year, and perhaps not the second or the third; you can always 
pull out plants and put more in. I should not want a lawn- 
garden so perfect that I could not change it in some char- 
acter each year; I should lose interest in it. 




26. Making the most of a rock. 



It must not be understood that I am speaking only for mixed 
borders. On the contrary, it is much better in most cases that 
each border or bed be dominated by the expression of one kind 
of flower or bush. In one place a person may desire a wild aster 
effect, or a petunia effect, or a larkspur effect, or a rhododendron 
effect; or it may be desirable to run heavily to strong foliage 
effects in one direction and to light flower effects in another. 
The mixed border is rather more a flower-garden idea than a 
landscape idea; when it shall be desirable to emphasize the one 
and when the other, cannot be set down in a book. 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 37 



The value of plants may lie in foliage and form rather than in 
bloom. 

What kinds of shrubs and flowers to plant is a wholly second- 
ary and largely a personal consideration. The main plantings 
are made up of hardy and vigorous species; then the things that 
you like are added. There is endless choice in the species, but 
the arrangement or disposition of the plants is far more impor- 
tant than the kinds; and the foliage and form of the plant are 
usually of more importance than its bloom. 

The appreciation of foliage effects in the landscape is a higher 
type of feeling than the desire for mere color. Flowers are 
transitory, but foliage and plant forms are abiding. The com- 
mon roses have very little value for landscape planting be- 
cause the foliage and habit of the rose-bush are not attractive, 
the leaves are inveterately attacked by bugs, and the blossoms 
are fleeting. Some of the wild roses and the Japanese Rosa 
rugosa, however, have distinct merit for mass effects. 

Even the common flowers, as marigold, zinnias, and gaillardias, 
are interesting as plant forms long before they come into bloom. 
To many persons the most 
satisfying epoch in the gar- 
den is that preceding the 
bloom, for the habits and 
stature of the plants are 
then unobscured. The early 
stages of lilies, daffodils, and 
all perennials are most in- 
teresting; and one never 
appreciates a garden until 
he realizes that this is so. 




27. The plant-form in a perennial salvia. 



Now let the reader, with these suggestions in mind, observe 
for one week the plant-forms in the humble herbs that he 
meets, whether these herbs are strong garden plants or the 



38 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



striking sculpturing of mulleins, burdocks, and jimson-weed. 
Figures 27 to 31 will be suggestive. 




28. Funkia, or day-lily. Where lies the chief interest, — in the plant-form or 

in the bloom ? 

Wild bushes are nearly always attractive in form and habit 
when planted in borders and groups. They improve 
in appearance under cultivation because they are 





29. A large-leaved niootiana. 

given a better chance to grow. In 
wild nature there is such fierce strug- 
gle for existence that plants usually 



30. The awkward century plant 
that has been laboriously car- 
ried over winter year by year 
in the cellar: compare with 
other plants here shown as to 
its value as a lawn subject. 






THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 39 

grow to few or single stems, and they are sparse and scraggly 
inform; but once given all the room they want and a good 
soil, they become luxurious, full, and comely. In most home 
grounds in the country the body of the planting may be very 
effectively composed of bushes taken from the adjacent woods 
and fields. The masses may then be enlivened by the addi- 
tion here and there of cultivated bushes, and the planting of 



m 










31. Making a picture with rhubarb. 



flowers and herbs about the borders* It is not essential that 
one know the names of these wild bushes, although a knowl- 
edge of their botanical kinships will add greatly to the pleas- 
ure of growing them. Neither will they look common when 
transferred to the lawn. There are not many persons who know 
even the commonest wild bushes intimately, and the things 
change so much in looks when removed to rich ground that 
few home-makers recognize them. 



40 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



Odd and formal trees. 

It is but a corollary of this discussion to say that plants which 
are simply odd or grotesque or unusual should be used with the 
greatest caution, for they introduce extraneous and jarring 
effects. They are little in sympathy with a landscape garden. 
An artist would not care to paint an evergreen that is sheared 
into some grotesque shape. It is only curious, and shows what 




32. A weeping tree at one side of the grounds and supported by a background. 

a man with plenty of time and long pruning shears can ac- 
complish. A weeping tree (particularly of a small-growing 
species) is usually seen to best advantage when it stands against 
a group or mass of foliage (Fig. 32), as a promontory, adding 
zest and spirit to the border; it then has relation with the place. 
This leads me to speak of the planting of the Lombardy 
poplar, which may be taken as a type of the formal tree, and as an 
illustration of what I mean to express. Its chief merits to the 
average planter are the quickness of its growth and the readiness 
with which it multiplies by sprouts. But in the North it is 
likely to be a short-lived tree, it suffers from storms, and it has 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 41 

few really useful qualities. It may be used to some advantage in 
windbreaks for peach orchards and other short-lived plantations ; 
but after a few years a screen of Lombardies begins to fail, and 
the habit of suckering from the root adds to its undesirable fea- 
tures. For shade it has little merit, and for timber none. 
Persons like it because it is striking, and this, in an artistic 
sense, is its gravest fault. It is unlike anything else in our land- 
scape, and does not fit into our scenery well. A row of Lom- 
bardies along a roadside is like a row of exclamation points! 

But the Lombardy can often be used to good effect as one 
factor in a group of trees, where its spire-like shape, towering 
above the surrounding foliage, may lend a spirited charm to 
the landscape. It combines well in such groups if it stands in 
visual nearness to chimneys or other tall formal objects. Then 
it gives a sort of architectural finish and spirit to a group; but 
the effect is generally lessened, if not altogether spoiled, in small 
places, if more than one Lombardy is in view. One or two speci- 
mens may often be used to give vigor to heavy plantations 
about low buildings, and the effect is generally best if they are 
seen beyond or at the rear of the building. Note the use that 
the artist has made of them in the backgrounds in Figs. 12, 13, 
and 43. 

Poplars and the like. 

Another defect in common ornamental planting, which is 
well illustrated in the use of. poplars, is the desire for plants 
merely because they grow rapidly. A very rapid-growing 
tree nearly always produces cheap effects. This is well illus- 
trated in the common planting of willows and poplars about 
summer places or lake shores. Their effect is almost wholly 
one of thinness and temporariness. There is little that suggests 
strength or durability in willows and poplars, and for this reason 
they should usually be employed as minor or secondary features 
in ornamental or home grounds. When quick results are de- 



42 



MANUAL OF GABDEXIXG 



sired, nothing is better to plant than these trees; but better trees, 
as maples, oaks, or elms, should be planted with them, and the 
poplars and willows should be removed as rapidly as the other 
speeies begin to afford protection. When the plantation finally 
assumes its permanent characters, a few of the remaining 




33. A spring expression worth securing. Catkins of the small poplar. 

poplars and willows, judiciously left, may afford very excel- 
lent effects; but no one who has an artist's feeling would be 
content to construct the framework of his place of these rapid- 
growing and soft -wooded trees. 

I have said that the legitimate use of poplars in ornamental 
grounds is in the production of minor or secondary effects. 
As a rule, they are less adapted to isolated planting as speci- 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 43 



men trees than to using in composition, — that is, as parts of 
general groups of trees, where their characters serve to break 
the monotony of heavier forms and heavier foliage. The 
poplars are gay trees, as a rule, especially those, like the aspens, 
that have a trembling foliage. Their leaves are bright and 
the tree-tops are thin. The common aspen or " popple, " 
Populus tremuloides, of our woods, is a meritorious little tree 
for certain effects. Its 
dangling catkins (Fig. 
33), light, dancing fo- 
liage, and silver-gray 
limbs, are always 
cheering, and its au- 
tumn color is one of the 
purest golden-yellows 
of our landscape. It 
is good to see a tree 
of it standing out in 
front of a group of 
maples or evergreens. 




-••' "~^X ,, 



34. Plant-form in cherries. — Reine Hortense. 



Plant-forms. 

Before one attains 
to great sensitiveness 
in the appreciation of gardens, he learns to distinguish plants by 
their forms. This is particularly true for trees and shrubs. Each 
species has its own "expression," which is determined by the 
size that is natural to it, mode of branching, form of top, twig 
characters, bark characters, foliage characters, and to some extent 
its flower and fruit characters. It is a useful practice for one 
to train his eye by learning the difference in expression of the 
trees of different varieties of cherries or pears or apples or other 
fruits, if he has access to a plantation of them. The differences 
in cherries and pears are very marked (Figs. 34-36) . He may 



44 



M A x UAL of ( J A R n E XIN G 



also contrast and compare carefully the kinds of any tree or 
shrub of which there are two or three speeies in the neighbor- 
hood, learning to dis- 
tinguish them without 
close examination; as 
the sugar maple, red 
maple, soft maple, and 
Norway maple (if it is 
' planted); the white or 
American elm, the cork 
elm, the slippery elm, 
the planted European 




Morello eh 

elms; the aspen, large-toothed 
poplar, cottonwood. balm of gil- 
ead, Carolina poplar, Lombardy 
poplar; the main species of oaks; 
the hickories; and the like. 

It will not be long before the 
observer learns that many of 
the tree and shrub characters 
are most marked in winter ; and 
he will begin unconsciously to 
add the winter to his year. 




36. May Puke cherry 



Various specific examples. 

The foregoing remarks will mean more if the reader is shown 
some concrete examples. I have chosen a few cases, not because 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 45 

they are the best, or even because they are always good enough 
for models, but because they lie in my way and illustrate what 
I desire to teach. 

A front yard example. 

We will first look at a very ordinary front yard. It con- 
tained no plants, except a pear tree standing near the corner 




37. The planting in a simple front yard. 

of the house. Four years later sees the yard as shown in Fig. 
37. An exochorda is the large bush in the very foreground, 
and the porch foundation is screened and a border is thereby 
given to the lawn. The length of this planting from end to 
end is about fourteen feet, with a projection towards the front 
on the left of ten feet. In the bay at the base of this projection 
the planting is only two feet wide or deep, and from here it 
gradually swings out to the steps, eight feet wide. The promi- 
nent large-leaved plant near the steps is a bramble, Rubus 
odoratus, very common in the neighborhood, and it is a choice 



46 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



plant for decorative planting, when it is kept under control. 
The plants in this border in front of the porch are all from the 
wild, and comprise a prickly ash, several plants of two wild 
osiers or dogwoods, a spice bush, rose, wild sunflowers and 
asters and golden-rods. The promontory at the left is a more 
ambitious but less effective mass. It contains an exochorda, 
a reed, variegated elder, sacaline, variegated dogwood, tansy, 
and a young tree of wild crab. At the rear of the plantation, 




38. Plan of the planting shown in Fig. 37. 



next the house, one sees the pear tree. The best single part of 
the planting is the reed (Arundo Donax) overtopping the 
exochorda. The photograph was taken early in summer, before 
the reed had become conspicuous. 

A ground plan of this planting is shown in Fig. 38. At A is 
the walk and B the steps. An opening at D serves as a passage. 
The main planting, in front of the porch, fourteen feet long, 
received twelve plants, some of which have now spread into 
large clumps. At 1 is a large bush of osier, Cornus Baileyi, 
one of the best red-stemmed bushes. At 2 is a mass of Rubus 
odoratus; at 5 asters and golden-rods; at 3 a clump of wild 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 47 



sunflowers. The projecting planting on the left comprises 
about ten plants, of which 4 is exochorda, 6 is arundo or reed, 
at the back of which is a large clump of sacaline, and 7 is a 
variegated-leaved elder. 

Another example. 

A back yard is shown in Fig. 39. The owner wanted a 
tennis court, and the yard is so small as not to allow of wide 
planting at the borders. 
However, something could 
be done. On the left is 
a weedland border, which 
formed the basis of the dis- 
cussion of wild plants on 
page 35. In the first place, 
a good lawn was made. In 
the second place, no walks 
or drives were laid in the 
area. ^The drive for grocers' 
wagons and coal is seen in 
the rear, ninety feet from 
the house. From I to J 
is the weedland, separating 
the area from the neighbor's 
premises. Near I is a clump 
of roses. At K is a large 
bunch of golden-rods. H marks a clump of yucca. G is a 
cabin, covered with vines on the front. From G to F is an 
irregular border, about six feet wide, containing barberries, 
forsythias, wild elder, and other bushes. D E is a screen of 
Russian mulberry, setting off the clothes yard from the front 
lawn. Near the back porch, at the end of the screen, is an 
arbor covered with wild grapes, making a play-house for the 
children. A clump of lilacs stands at A. At B is a vine- 




39. Diagram of a back-yard planting. 
50 X 90 feet. 



48 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



covered screen, serving as a hammock support. The lawn made 
and the planting done, it was next necessary to lay the walks. 
These are wholly informal affairs, made by sinking a plank ten 
inches wide into the ground to a level with the sod. The bor- 
der plantings of this yard are too straight and regular for the 
most artistic results, but such was necessary in order not to 








HB- 



40. The beginning of a landscape garden. 

encroach upon the central space. Yet the reader will no doubt 
agree that this yard is much better than it could be made by 
any system of scattered and spotted planting. Let him im- 
agine how a glowing carpet-bed would look set down in the 
center of this lawn ! 

A third example. 

The making of a landscape picture is well illustrated in 
Figs. 40, 41. The former shows a small clay field (seventy- 
five feet wide, and three hundred feet deep), with a barn at 



; ! 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 49 

the rear. In front of the barn is a screen of willows. The 
observer is looking from the dwelling-house. The area has been 
plowed and seeded for a lawn. The operator has then marked 
out a devious line upon either border with a hoe handle, and all 
the space between these borders has been gone over with a 
garden roller to mark the area of the desired greensward. 




41. The result in five vears. 



The borders are now planted with a variety of small trees, 
bushes, and herbs. Five years later the view shown in Fig. 
41 was taken. 



A small back yard. 

A back yard is shown in Fig. 42. It is approximately sixty 
feet square. At present it contains a drive, which is unneces- 
sary, expensive to keep in repair, and destructive of any attempt 
to make a picture of the area. The place could be improved 
by planting it somewhat after the manner of Fig. 43. 



50 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




PP ""I 



42. A meaningless back-yard planting, and an unnecessary drive. 




43. Suggestions for improving Fig. 42. 

A city lot. 

A plan of a city lot is given in Fig. 44. The area is fifty 
by one hundred, and the house occupies the greater part of the 
width. It is level, but the surrounding land is higher, resulting 
in a sharp terrace, three or four feet high, on the rear, E D. 
This terrace vanishes at C on the right, but extends nearly the 
whole length of the other side, gradually diminishing as it 
approaches A. There is a terrace two feet high extending from 
A to B, along the front. Beyond the line E D is the rear of an 
establishment which it is desired to hide. Since the terraces 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 51 



set definite borders to this little place, it is desirable to plant 
the boundaries rather heavily. If the adjoining lawns were 
on the same level, or if the neighbors 
would allow one area to be merged into 
the other by pleasant slopes, the three 
yards might be made into one pic- 
ture; but the place must remain iso- 
lated. 

There are three problems of struc- 
tural planting in the place : to provide 
a cover or screen at the rear; to pro- 
vide lower border masses on the side 
terraces; to plant next the founda- 
tions of the house. Aside from these 
problems, the grower is entitled to 
have a certain number of specimen 
plants, if he has particular liking for 
given types, but these specimens must 
be planted in some relation to the 
structural masses, and not in the mid- 
dle of the lawn. 

The owner desired a mixed planting, for variety. The follow- 
ing shrubs were actually selected and planted. The place is 
in central New York: — 



1 


1 lTt=ri 


1 


[J 


A -_ . -= — 





44. Present outline of a city 
back yard, desired to be 
planted. 



Shrubs for the tall background 

2 Barberry, Berberis vulgaris and var. purpurea. 

1 Cornus Mas. 

2 Tall deutzias. 

3 Lilacs. 

2 Mock oranges, Philadelphus grandiflorus and P. coronarius. 

2 Variegated elders. 

2 Eleagnus, Elceagnus hortensis and E. longipes. 

1 Exochorda. 

2 Hibiscuses. 



52 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



1 Privet. 

3 Viburnums. 

1 Snowball. 

1 Tartarian honeysuckle. 

1 Sirver Bell, Halesia tetraptera. 

These were planted on the sloping bank of the terrace, from 
E to D. The terrace has an incline, or width, of about three 
feet. Figure 45 shows this terrace after the planting was com- 
pleted, looking from the point C. 



v/ 










45. The planting of the terrace in Fig. 44. 



• Shrubs of medium size, suitable fur side plantings and groups in 
the foregoing example 

3 Barberries, Berberis Thunbergii. 

3 Osier dogwoods, variegated. 

2 Japanese quinces, Cydonia Japonica and C. Maulei. 

4 Tall deutzias. 

1 Variegated elder. 

7 Weigelas, assorted- colors. 

1 Rhodotypos. 

9 Spireas of medium growth, assorted. 

1 Rubus odoratus. 

1 Lonicera fragrantissima. 

Most of these shrubs were planted in a border two feet wide, 
extending from B to C D, the planting beginning about ten 
feet back from the street. Some of them were placed on the 
terrace at the left, extending from E one-fourth of the distance 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 53 

to A. The plants were set about two feet apart. A strong 
clump was placed at N to screen the back yard. In this back 
yard a few small fruit trees and a strawberry bed were planted. 

Low informal shrubs for front of porch and banking against house 

3 Deutzia gracilis. 

6 Kerrias, green and variegated. 

3 Daphne Mezereum. 

3 Lonicera Halliana. 

3 Rubus phcenicolasius. 

3 Symphoricarpus vulgaris. 

4 Mahonias. 

1 Ribes aureum. 

1 Ribes sanguineum. 

1 Rubus crataegifolius. 

1 Rubus fruticosus var. laciniatifs. 

These bushes were planted against the front of the house 
.(a porch on a high foundation extends to the right from 0), 
from the walk around to P, and a few of them were placed at 
the rear of the house. 

Specimen shrubs for mere ornament, for this place 
Azalea. 

Rhododendron. 
Rose. 

2 Hydrangeas. 
1 Snowball. 

1 each Forsythia suspensa and F. viridissima. 

2 Flowering almonds. 

These were planted in conspicuous places here and there 
against the other masses. 

Here are one hundred excellent and interesting bushes planted 
in a yard only fifty feet wide and one hundred feet deep, and 
yet the place has as much room in it as it had before. There 



54 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



is abundant opportunity along the borders for dropping in 
cannas, dahlias, hollyhocks, asters, geraniums, coleuses, and 
other brilliant plants. The bushes will soon begin to crowd, 
to be sure, but a mass is wanted, and the narrowness of the 







46. Said to have been planted. 

plantations will allow each bush to develop itself laterally to 
perfection. If the borders become too thick, however, it is an 
easy matter to remove some of the bushes ; but they probably will 
not. Picture the color and variety and life in that little yard. 
And if a pigweed now and then gets a start in the border, 
it would do no harm to let it alone : it belongs there ! Then 
picture the same area filled with disconnected, spotty, dyspeptic, 
and unspirited flower-beds and rose bushes! 




47. An area well filled. Compare Fig. 46. 

Various examples. 

Strong and bare foundations should be relieved by heavy 
planting. Fill the corners with snow-drifts of foliage. Plant 
with a free hand, as if you meant it (compare Figs. 46 and 47). 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 55 



The corner by the steps is a perennial source of bad temper. 
The lawn-mower will not touch it, and the grass has to be cut 
with a butcher-knife. If nothing else comes to hand, let a 
burdock grow in it (Fig. 1). 




48. The screening of the tennis-screen. 

The tennis-screen . may be relieved by a background (Fig. 
48), and a clump of ribbon-grass or something else is out 
of the way against a post 
(Fig. 49). 

Excellent mass effects may 
be secured by cutting well- 
established plants of sumac, 
ailanthus, basswood, and 
other strong-growing things, 
to the ground each year, for 
the purpose of securing the 
stout shoots. Figure 50 will 
give the hint. 

But if one has no area 




49. At the bottom of the clothes-post. 



which he can make into a lawn and upon which he can plant 
such verdurous masses, what then may he do ? Even then 



56 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

there may be opportunity for a little neat and artistic plant- 
ing. Even if one lives in a rented house, he may bring in a 
bush or an herb from the woods, and paint a picture with it. 
Plant it in the corner by the steps, in front of the porch, at 
the corner of the house, — almost anywhere except in the 
center of the lawn. Make the ground rich, secure a strong 
root, and plant it with care; then wait. The little clump will 
not only have a beauty and interest of its own, but it may 
add immensely to the furniture of the yard. 




»■<■■■'•<« *' • -iiili 7; - . .: : ; .'.': 1 '■ :- Vi i .'.^ ,^,':.*:*/«(-.--i*: - 

50. Young shoots of ailanthus (and sunflowers for variety). 

About these clumps one may plant bulbs of glowing tulips 
or dainty snowdrops and lilies-of-the-valley; and these may be 
followed with pansies and phlox and other simple folk. Very 
soon one finds himself deeply interested in these random 
and detached pictures, and almost before he is aware he finds 
that he has rounded off the corners of the house, made snug little 
arbors of wild grapes and clematis, covered the rear fence and 
the outhouse with actinidia and bitter-sweet, and has thrown 
in dashes of color with hollyhocks, cannas, and lilies, and has 
tied the foundations of the buildings to the greensward by low 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 57 



strands of vines or deft bits of planting, 
feel that flowers are most expressive of 
when they are dain- 
tily dropped in here 
and there against a 
background of foli- 
age, or else made a 
side -piece in the 
place. There is no 
limit to the adapta- 
tions; Figs. 51 to 
58 suggest some of 
the backyard possi- 
bilities. 



He soon comes to 
the best emotions 




A backyard cabin. 



Presently he rebels at the bold, harsh, and impudent de- 
signs of some of the gardeners, 
and grows into a resourceful 
love of plant forms and verdure. 
He may still like the weeping 
and cut-leaved and party-colored 
trees of the horticulturist, but 



he sees that their best effects 
are to be had when they are 
planted sparingly, as borders or 
promontories of the structural 
masses. 

The best planting, as the best 
painting and the best music, is 
possible only with the best and 
tenderest feeling and the closest 
living with nature. One's place 
grows to be a reflection of him- 
self, changing as he changes, and expressing his life and sym- 
pathies to the last. 




52. A garden path with hedgerows, 
trellis, and bench, in formal treat- 
ment. 



58 



MANUAL OF GAftDENlNG 



Review 

We have now discussed some of the principles and applica- 
tions of landscape architecture or landscape gardening, par- 
ticularly in reference to 
the planting. The ob- 
ject of landscape garden- 
ing is to make a picture. 
All the grading, seeding, 
planting, are incidental 
and supplemental to this 
one central idea. The 
greensward is the canvas, 
the house or some other 
prominent point is the 




53. An enclosure for lawn games. 



central figure, the planting completes 
the composition and adds the color. 

The second conception is the prin- 
ciple that the picture should ham a 
landscape effect. That is, it should be 
nature-like. Carpet-beds are masses 
of color, not pictures. They are the 
little garnishings and reliefs that are 
to be used very cautiously, as little 
eccentricities and conventionalisms in 
a building should never be more than 
very minor features. 

Every other concept in landscape 
gardening is subordinate to these two. 
Some of the most important of these 
secondary yet underlying considera- 
tions are as follows: — 

The place is to be conceived of as a unit. If a building is 
not pleasing, ask an architect to improve it. The real architect 




54. Sunlight and shadow. 



THE GENERAL PLAN OR THEORY OF THE PLACE 59 





I will study the building as a whole, grasp its design and meaning, 
and suggest improvements that will add to the forcefulness 

i of the entire structure. A dabbler 
would add a chimney here, a win- 
dow there, and apply various daubs 
of paint to the building. Each of 
these features might be good in 
itself. The paints might be the 
best of ochre, ultramarine, or paris 
green, but they might have no rela- 
tion to the building as a whole and 
would be only ludicrous. These two 
examples illustrate the difference 
between landscape gardening and 



55. An upland garden, with 
grass-grown steps, sundial, 
and edge of foxgloves. 

the scattering over the place 
of mere ornamental features. 
There should be one cen- 
tral and emphatic point in 
the picture. A picture of a 
battle draws its interest from 
the action of a central fig- 
ure or group. The moment 
the incidental and lateral fig- 
ures are made as prominent 

.,.. V1 . y „ ... as the central figures, the 

picture loses emphasis, life, 

56. A garden corner. ftnd meaning . T h e borders 

a place are of less importance than its center. Therefore 

Keep the center of the place open; 

Frame and mass the sides; Avoid scattered effects. 



of 



60 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




57. An old-fashioned doorway. 

effective than twenty flowers 
in the center of the lawn. 

More depends on the posi- 
tions that plants occupy with 
reference to each other and to 
the structural design of the place, 
than on the intrinsic merits of 
the plants themselves. 

Landscape gardening, then, 
is the embellishment of 
grounds in such a way that 
they will have a nature-like or 
landscape effect. The flowers 
and accessories may heighten 
and accelerate the effect, but 
they should not contradict it. 



In a landscape picture flow- 
ers are incidents. They add 
emphasis, supply color, give 
variety and finish; they are 
the ornaments, but the lawn 
and the mass-plantings make 
the framework. One flower 
in the border, and made an 
incident of the picture, is more 




An informally treated stream. 



CHAPTER III 

EXECUTION OF SOME OF THE LANDSCAPE FEATURES 

The general lay-out of a small home property having now 
been considered, we may discuss the practical operations of 
executing the plan. It is not intended in this chapter to discuss 
the general question of how to handle the soil: that discussion 
comes in Chapter IV; nor in detail how to handle plants: that 
occurs in Chapters V to X; but the subjects of grading, laying 
out of walks and drives, executing the border plantings, and the 
making of lawns, may be briefly considered. 

Of course the instructions given in a book, however complete, 
are very inadequate and unsatisfactory as compared with the 
advice of a good experienced person. It is not always possible 
to find such a person, however; and it is no little satisfaction to 
the homemaker if he can feel that he can handle the work him- 
self, even at the expense of some mistakes. 

The grading. 

The first consideration is to grade the land. Grading is 
very expensive, especially if performed at a season when the 
soil is heavy with water. Every effort should be made, there- 
fore, to reduce the grading to a minimum and still secure a 
pleasing contour. A good time to grade, if one has the time, 
is in the fall before the heavy rains come, and then allow the 
surface to settle until spring, when the finish may be made. 
All filling will settle in time unless thoroughly tamped as it 
proceeds. 

The smaller the area the more pains must be taken with the 
grading; but in any plat that is one hundred feet or more square, 

61 



62 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

very considerable undulations may be left in the surface with 
excellent effect. In lawns of this size, or even half this size, 
it is rarely advisable to have them perfectly flat and level. 
They should slope gradually away from the house ; and when 
the lawn is seventy-five feet or more in width, it may be slightly 
crowning with good effect. A lawn should never be hollow, 
— that is, lower in the center than at the borders, — and broad 
lawns that are perfectly flat and level often appear to be hollow. 
A slope of one foot in twenty or thirty is none too much for a 
pleasant grade in lawns of some extent. 

In small places, the grading may be done by the eye, unless 
there are very particular conditions to meet. In large or 
difficult areas, it is well to have the place contoured by instru- 
ments. This is particularly desirable if the grading is to be 
done on contract. A basal or datum line is established, above 
or below which all surfaces are to be shaped at measured 
distances. Even in small yards, such a datum line is desirable 
for the best kind of work. 

The terrace. 

In places in which the natural slope is very perceptible, there 
is a tendency to terrace the lawn for the purpose of making the 
various parts or sections of it more or less level and plane. 
In nearly all cases, however, a terrace in a main lawn is objec- 
tionable. It cuts the lawn into two or more portions, and 
thereby makes it look smaller and spoils the effect of the picture. 
A terrace always obtrudes a hard and rigid line, and fastens 
the attention upon itself rather than upon the landscape. Ter- 
races are also expensive to make and to keep in order; and a 
shabby terrace is always distracting. 

When formal effects are desired, their success depends, how 
ever, very largely on the rigidity of the lines and the care with 
which they are maintained. If a terrace is necessary, it should 
be in the form of a retaining wall next the street, or else it 



EXECUTION OF SOME OF THE LANDSCAPE FEATURES 63 

should lie next the building, giving as broad and continuous a 
lawn as possible. It should be remembered, however, that a 
terrace next a building should not be a part of the landscape, 
but a part of the architecture; that is, it should serve as a 
base to the building. It will at once be seen, therefore, that 
terraces are most in place against those buildings that have 
strong horizontal lines, and they are little suitable against 
buildings with very broken lines and mixed or gothic features. 
In order to join the terrace to the building, it is usually advis- 
able to place some architectural feature upon its crown, as a 
balustrade, and to ascend it by means of architectural steps. 
The terrace elevation, therefore, becomes a part of the base of 
the building, and the top of it is an esplanade. 



^ss J :;"'£";h 



59. A terrace in the distance; in the foreground an ideal " running out " of 

the bank. 

A simple and gradually sloping bank can nearly always 
be made to take the place of a terrace. For example, let the 
operator make a terrace, with sharp angles above and below, 
in the fall of the year; in the spring, he will find (if he has not 
sodded it heavily) that nature has taken the matter in hand 
and the upper angle of the terrace has been washed away and 
deposited in the lower angle, and the result is the beginning of 
a good series of curves. Figure 59 shows an ideal slope, with its 
double curve, comprising a convex curve on the top of the bank, 



64 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



and a concave curve at the lower part. This is a slope that 
would ordinarily be terraced, but in its present condition it is 
a part of the landscape picture. It may be mown as readily 
as any other part of the lawn, and it takes care of itself. 




60. Treatment of a sloping lawn. 

The diagrams in Fig. 60 indicate poor and good treatment 
of a lawn. The terraces are not needed in this case; or if 
they are, they should never be made as at 1. The same dip 
could be taken up in a single curved bank, as at 3, but the 
better way, in general, is to give the treatment shown in 2. 




61. Treatment of a very steep bank. 

Figure 61 shows how a very high terrace, 4, can be supplaced 
by a sloping bank 5. Figure 62 shows a terrace that falls away 
too suddenly from the house. 

The bounding lines. 

In grading to the borders of the place, it is not always neces- 
sary, nor even desirable, that a continuous contour should be 
maintained, especially if the border is higher or lower than the 



EXECUTION OF SOME OF THE LANDSCAPE FEATURES 65 



lawn. A somewhat irrregular line of grade will appear 
to be most natural, and lend itself best to effective 
planting. This is specially true in the grade to water- 
courses, which, as a rule, should be more or less devious 
or winding; and the adjacent land should, therefore, 
present various heights and contours. It is not 
always necessary, however, to make distinct 
banks along water-courses, particu- 
larly if the place is small and 
: " -. the natural lay of the 

land is more or 
less plane or 
flat. A very 

slight depression, as shown in Fig. 63, may answer all the pur- 
poses of a water grade in such places. 

If it is desirable that the lawn be as large and spacious as 
possible, then the boundary of it should be removed. Take 




that falls too suddenly away 

from a building. There should be 

a level place or esplanade next the 

building, if possible. 




63. Shaping the land down to a water-course. 



away the fences, curbing, and other right lines. In rural 
places, a sunken fence may sometimes be placed athwart the 



66 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



lawn at its farther edge for the purpose of keeping cattle off the 
place, and thereby bring in the adjacent landscape. Figure 64 
suggests how this may be done. The depression near the foot of 
the lawn, which is really a ditch and scarcely visible from the 



%^^v:v:v^ 



^ . ';mm^ 



64. A sunken fence athwart a foreground. 

upper part of the place because of the slight elevation on its 
inner rim, answers all the purposes of a fence. 

Nearly all trees are injured if the dirt is filled about the 
base to the depth of a foot or more. The natural base of the 
plant should be exposed so far as possible, not only for protec- 
tion of the tree, but because the base of a tree trunk is one of 
its most distinctive features. Oaks, maples, and in fact most 




A good grating about a tree. 



^TJ 




65. Protecting a tree in filled land. 



trees will lose their bark near the crown if the dirt is piled 
against them; and this is especially true if the water tends 
to settle about the trunks. Figure 65 shows how this difficulty 
may be obviated. A well is stoned up, allowing a space of a 



EXECUTION OF SOME OF THE LANDSCAPE FEATURES G7 

foot or two on all sides, and tile drains are laid about the base 
of the well, as shown in the diagram at the right. A grating to 
cover a well is also shown. It is often possible to make a slop- 
ing bank just above the tree, and to allow the ground to fall 
away from the roots on the lower side, so that there is no well 
or hole ; but this is practicable only when the land below the 
tree is considerably lower than that above it. 

If much of the surface is to be removed, the good top earth 
should be saved, and placed back on the area, in which to sow 
the grass seed and to make the plantings. This top soil may be 
piled at one side out of the way while the grading is proceeding. 

Walks and drives. 

So far as the picture in the landscape is concerned, walks and 
drives are blemishes. Since they are necessary, however, 
they must form a part of the landscape design. They should 
be as few as possible, not only because they interfere with the 
artistic composition, but also because they are expensive to 
make and to maintain. 

Most places have too many, rather than too few, walks and 
drives. Small city areas rarely need a driveway entrance, 
not even to the back door. The back yard in Fig. 39 illus- 
trates this point. The distance from the house to the street 
on the back is about ninety feet, yet there is no driveway in the 
place. The coal and provisions are carried in; and, although 
the deliverymen may complain at first, they very soon accept 
the inevitable. It is not worth the while to maintain a drive 
in such a place for the convenience of truckmen and grocers. 
Neither is it often necessary to have a drive in the front yard 
if the house is within seventy-five or one hundred feet of the 
street. When a drive is necessary, it should enter, if possible, 
at the side of the residence, and not make a circle in the front 
lawn. This remark may not apply to areas of a half acre or 
more. 



68 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



The drives and walks should be direct. They should go 
where they appear to go, and should be practically the shortest 
distances between the points to be reached. Figure 66 illus- 
trates some of the problems connected with walks to the front 
door. A common type of walk is a, and it is a nuisance. The 
time that one loses in going around the cameo-set in the center 
would be sufficient, if conserved, to lengthen a man's life by 
several months or a year. Such a device has no merit in art 
or convenience. Walk b is better, but still is not ideal, inas- 
much as it makes too much of a right-angled curve, and the 

pedestrian desires to cut across 
the corner. Such a walk, also, 
usually extends too far beyond the 
corner of the house to make it ap- 
pear to be direct. It has the 
merit, however, of leaving the 
center of the lawn practically un- 
touched. The curve in walk d is 
ordinarily unnecessary unless the 
ground is rolling. In small places, 
like this, it is better to have a 
straight walk directly from the 
sidewalk to the house. In fact, 
this is true in nearly all cases in which the lawn is not more 
than forty to seventy-five feet deep. Plan c is also inexcusable. 
A straight walk would answer every purpose better. Any 
walk that passes the house, and returns to it, e, is inexcusable 
unless it is necessary to make a very steep ascent. If most of 
the traveling is in one direction from the house, a walk like / 
may be the most direct and efficient. It is known as a direct 
curve, and is a compound of a concave and a convex curve. 

It is essential that any service walk or drive, however long, 
should be continuous in direction and design from end to end. 
Figure 67. illustrates a long drive that contradicts this principle. 




66. Forms of front walks. 



EXECUTION OF SOME OF THE LANDSCAPE FEATURES 69 



It is a series of mean- 
ingless curves. The 
reason for these curves 
is the fact that the 
drive was extended 
from time to time as 
new houses were added 
to the villa. The 
reader will easily per- 
ceive how all the kinks 
might be taken out of 
this drive and one di- 
rect and bold curve 
be substituted. 

The question of 
drainage, curbing, 
and gutters. 

Thorough drainage, 
natural or artificial, is 
essential to hard and 
permanent walks and 
drives. This point is 
too often neglected. 
On the draining and 
grading of residence 
streets a well-known 
landscape gardener, 
0. C. Simonds, writes 
as follows in "Park 
and Cemetery": 

" The surface drainage is something that interests us whenever 
it rains or when the snow melts. It has been customary to 
locate catch-basins for receiving the surface water at street 




■o 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 






: .^jgj| 



r K^v- 



intersections. This arrangement causes most of the surface 
water from both streets to run past the crossings, making it 
necessary to depress the pavement, so that one must step down 

y v„ .. a an d U P m go m g 

from one side of 
a street to the 
other, or else a 
passageway for 
the water must 
be made through 
the crossing. It 
may be said that 
a step down 
to the pavement 
and up again to 
the sidewalk at 
the street inter- 
sections is of no 
consequence,but 
it is really more 
elegant and sat- 
isfactory to have 
the walk practi- 
cally continuous 
(Fig. 68). With 
the catch-basin 
at the corner, 
the stoppage of 
the inlet, or a 
great fall of rain, 
sometimes cov- 
ers the crossing 
with water, so 
that one must 




EXECUTION OF SOME OF THE LANDSCAPE FEATURES 71 

either wade or go out of his way. With catch-basins placed 
in the center of the blocks, or, if the blocks are long, at some 
distance from the crossing, the intersections can be kept rela- 
tively high and dry. Roadways are generally made crowning 
in the center so that water runs to the sides, but frequently the 
fall lengthwise of the roadway is less than it should be. City 
engineers are usually inclined to make the grade along the 
length of a street as nearly level as possible. Authorities who 
have given the subject of roads considerable study recommend 
a fall lengthwise of not less than one foot in one hundred and 
twenty-five, nor more than six feet in one hundred. Such 
grades are not always feasible, but a certain amount of varia- 



69. A common form of edge for walk or drive. 70. A better form. 



p 



tion in level can usually be made in a residence street which 
will make it much more pleasing in appearance, and have cer- 
tain practical advantages in keeping the street dry. The water 
is usually confined to the edge of the pavement by curbing, 
which may rise anywhere from four to fourteen inches above 
the surface. This causes all the water falling on the roadway 
to seek the catch-basin and be wasted, excepting for its use in 
flushing the sewer. If the curbing, which is really unnecessary 
in most cases, were omitted, much of the surface water would 
soak into the ground between the sidewalk and the pavement, 
doing much good to trees, shrubs, and grass. The roots of the 
trees naturally extend as far, or farther, than their branches, 
and for their good the ground under the pavement and side- 
walk should be supplied with a certain amount of moisture. 

"The arrangement made for the removal of surface water 
from the street must also take care of the surplus water from 



72 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

adjacent lots, so there is a practical advantage in having the level 
of the street lower than that of the ground adjoining. The 
appearance of houses and home grounds is also much better 
when they are higher than the street, and for this reason it is 
usually desirable to keep the latter as low as possible and give 
the underground pipes sufficient covering to protect them from 
frost. Where the ground is high and the sewers very deep, 
the grades should, of course, be determined with reference to 
surface conditions only. It sometimes happens that this gen- 
eral arrangement of the grades of home grounds, which is 
desirable on most accounts, causes water from melting snow 
to flow over the sidewalk in the winter time, where it may 
freeze and be dangerous to pedestrians. A slight depression of 
the lot away from the sidewalk and then an ascent toward the 
house would usually remedy this difficulty, and also make the 
house appear higher. Sometimes, however, a pipe should be 
placed underneath the sidewalk to allow water to reach the street 
from inside of the lot line. The aim in surface drainage should 
always be to keep the traveled portions of the street in the most 
perfect condition for use. The quick removal of surplus water 
from sidewalks, crossings, and roadways will help insure this 
result. " 

These remarks concerning the curbings and hard edges of 
city streets may also be applied to walks and drives in small 
grounds. Figure 69, for example, shows the common method of 
treating the edge of a walk, by making a sharp and sheer ele- 
vation. This edge needs constant trimming, else it becomes 
unshapely; and this trimming tends to widen the walk. For 
general purposes, a border, like that x shown in Fig. 70, is better. 
The sod rolls over until it meets the walk, and the lawn-mower 
is able to keep it in condition. If it becomes more or less rough 
and irregular, it is pounded down. 

If it is thought necessary to trim the edges of walks and drives, 
then one of the various kinds of sod-cutters that are sold by 



EXECUTION OF SOME OF THE LANDSCAPE FEATURES 73 




dealers may be used for the purpose, or an old hoe may have its 
shank straightened and the corners of the blade rounded off, as 
shown in Fig. 71, and this will answer all pur- 
poses of the common sod-cutter ; or, a sharp, 
straight-edged spade may sometimes be used. 
The loose overhanging grass on these edges is 
ordinarily cut by large shears made for the pur- 
pose. 

Walks and drives should be laid in such direc- 
tion that they will tend to drain themselves; 
but if it is necessary to have gutters, these should 
be deep and sharp at the bottom, for the water 
then draws together and tends to keep the gutter 
clean. A shallow and rounded brick or cobble 
gutter does not clean itself; it is very likely to L 
fill with weeds, and vehicles often drive in it. 7l " Sod cutter - 

* ,-,g P r , The best gutters and curbs 

t0^^^^^W^^^^^^^^^^\ are now made of cement. 

^}^^^^^^^^^^^mim\ Figure 72 shows a catch 

basin at the left of a walk 

72. Draining the gutter and the drive. , . , ,, ,.,,.-, 

or drive, and the tile laid 
underneath for the purpose of carrying away the surface 
water. 

The materials. 

The best materials for the main walks are cement and stone 
flagging. In many soils, however, there is enough binding ma- 
terial in the land to make a good walk without the addition of 
any other material. Gravel, cinders, ashes, and the like, are 
nearly always inadvisable, for they are liable to be loose in dry 
weather and sticky in wet weather. In the laying of cement it 
is important that the walk be well drained by a layer of a foot 
or two of broken stone or brickbats, unless the walk is on loose 
and leachy land or in a frostless country. 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



In back yards it is often best not to have any well-defined 
walk. A ramble across the sod may be as good. For a back 
walk, over which delivery men are to travel, one of the very 
best means is to sink a foot-wide plank into the earth on a level 
with the surface of the sod; and it is not necessary that the 
walk be perfectly straight. These walks do not interfere with 
the work of the lawn-mower, and they take care of themselves. 



When the plank rots, 
ten years, the plank is 
dropped in its place. 



at the expiration of five to 

taken up and another one 

This ordinarily makes the 

best kind of a walk 

alongside a rear border. 

,'\ (Plate XI.) In gardens, 

nothing is better for a 

walk than tanbark. 

The sides of walks and 
drives may often be 
planted with shrubbery. 
It is not necessary that 
they always have prim 
and definite borders. 
Figure 73 illustrates a 
bank of foliage which 
breaks up the hard line 
of a walk, and serves also as a border for the growing of 
flowers and interesting specimens. This walk is also character- 
ized by the absence of high and hard borders. Figure 68 illus- 
trates this fact, and also shows how the parking between the 
walk and the street may be effectively planted. 

Making the borders. 

The borders and groups of planting are laid out on the paper 
plan. There are several ways of transferring them to the 
ground. Sometimes they are not made until after the lawn is 




73. Planting alongside a walk. 



EXECUTION OF SOME OF THE LANDSCAPE FEATURES 75 



established, when the inexperienced operator may more readily 
lay them out. Usually, however, the planting and lawn-making 
proceed more or less simultaneously. After the shaping of the 
ground has been completed, the areas are marked off by stakes, 
by a limp rope laid on 
the surface, or by a mark 
made with a rake handle. 
The margin once deter- 
mined, the lawn may be 
seeded and rolled (Fig. 40) , 
and the planting allowed 
to proceed as it may; or 
the planting may all be 
done inside the borders, 
and the seeding then be 
applied to the lawn. If 
the main dimensions of the 
borders and beds are care- 
fully measured and marked 
by stakes, it is an easy 
matter to complete the outline by making a mark with a stick or 
rakestale. 

The planting may be done in spring or fall, — in fall pref- 
erably if the stock is ready (and of hardy species) and the land 




74. A bowered pathway, 




¥;VgS'& ; S:' ,| i»':bV^C i i- ;: i : --' ' V "' ; ■' ' ' '- '.^"■JUiiw^-'l 1 ' 



75. Objects for pity. 



in perfect condition of drainage; usually, however, things are 
not ready early enough in the fall for any extended planting, 
and the work is commonly done as soon as the ground settles 
in spring (see Chapter V). Head the bushes back. Dig up the 



76 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



entire area. Spade up the ground, set the bushes thick, hoe 
them at intervals, and then let them go. If you do not like 
the bare earth between them, sow in the seeds of hardy annual 
flowers, like phlox, petunia, alyssum, and pinks. Never set 
the bushes in holes dug in the old sod (Fig. 75) . The person who 
plants his shrubs in holes in the sward does not seriously mean to 
make any foliage mass, and it is likely that he does not know 
what relation the border mass has to artistic planting. The 
illustration, Fig. 76, shows the office that a shrubbery may per- 
form in relation to a building; this particular building was 
erected in an open field. 




76. 



A border group, limiting the space next the residence and separating it 
from the fields and the clothes-yards. 



I have said to plant the bushes thick. This is for quick effect. 
It is an easy matter to thin the plantation if it becomes too thick. 
All common bushes may usually be planted as close as two to 
three feet apart each way, especially if one gets many of them 
from the fields, so that he does not have to buy them. If 
there are not sufficient of the permanent bushes for thick plant- 
ing, the spaces may be filled temporarily by cheaper or com- 
moner bushes; but do not forget to remove the fillers as rapidly 
as the others need the room. 



EXECUTION OF SOME OF THE LANDSCAPE FEATURES 77 

Making the lawn. 

The first thing to be done in the making of a lawn is to estab- 
lish the proper grade. This should be worked out with the 
greatest care, from the fact that when a lawn is once made, its 
level and contour should never be changed. 

Preparing the ground. 

The next important step is to prepare the ground deeply and 
thoroughly. The permanence of the sod will depend very 
largely on the fertility and preparation of the soil in the begin- 
ning. The soil should be deep and porous, so that the roots will 
strike far into it, and be enabled thereby to withstand droughts 
and cold winters. The best means of deepening the soil, as ex- 
plained in Chapter IV, is by tile-draining; but it can also be ac- 
complished to some extent by the use of the subsoil plow and 
by trenching. Since the lawn cannot be refitted, however, 
the subsoil is likely to fall back into a hard-pan in a few years 
if it has been subsoiled or trenched, whereas a good tile-drain 
affords a permanent amelioration of the under soil. Soils that 
are naturally loose and porous may not need this extra attention. 
In fact, lands that are very loose and sandy may require to 
be packed or cemented rather than loosened. One of the best 
means of doing this is to fill them with humus, so that the water 
will not leach through them rapidly. Nearly all lands that are 
designed for lawns are greatly benefited by heavy dressings of 
manure thoroughly worked into them in the beginning, although 
it is possible to get the ground too rich on the surface at first; 
it is not necessary that all the added plant-food be immediately 
available. 

The lawn will profit by an annual application of good chem- 
ical fertilizer. Ground bone is one of the best materials to 
apply, at the rate of three hundred to four hundred pounds to 
the acre. It is usually sown broadcast, early in spring. Dis- 



78 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

solved South Carolina rock may be used instead, but the appli- 
cation will need to be heavier if similar results are expected. 
Yellow and poor grass may often be reinvigorated by an appli- 
cation of two hundred to three hundred pounds to the acre of 
nitrate of soda. Wood ashes are often good, particularly on 
soils that tend to be acid. Muriate of potash is not so often 
used, although it may produce excellent results in some cases. 
There is no invariable rule. The best plan is for the lawn-maker 
to try the different treatments on a little piece or corner of the 
lawn; in this way, he should secure more valuable information 
than can be got otherwise. 

The first operation after draining and grading is the plowing 
or spading of the surface. If the area is large enough to admit 
a team, the surface is worked down by means of harrows of 
various kinds. Afterwards it is leveled by means of shovels and 
hoes, and finally by garden rakes. The more finely and com- 
pletely the soil is pulverized, the quicker the lawn may be 
secured, and the more permanent are the results. 

The kind of grass. 

The best grass for the body or foundation of lawns in the 
North is June-grass or Kentucky blue-grass (Poa pratensis), 
not Canada blue-grass (Poa compressa). 

Whether white clover or other seed should be sown with the 
grass seed is very largely a personal question. Some persons 
like it, and others clo not. If it is desired, it may be sown 
directly after the grass seed is sown, at the rate of one to four 
quarts or more to the acre. 

For special purposes, other grasses may be used for lawns. 
Various kinds of lawn mixtures are on the market, for particu- 
lar uses, and some of them are very good. 

A superintendent of parks in one of the Eastern cities gives 
the following experience on kinds of grass: " For the meadows 
on the large parks we generally use extra recleaned Kentucky 



EXECUTION OF SOME OF THE LANDSCAPE FEATURES 79 

blue-grass, red-top, and white clover, in the proportion of thirty 
pounds of blue-grass, thirty pounds of red-top, and ten pounds of 
white clover to the acre. Sometimes we use for smaller lawns 
the blue-grass and red-top without the white clover. We have 
used blue-grass, red-top, and Rhode Island bent in the propor- 
tion of twenty pounds each, and ten pounds of white clover to 
the acre, but the Rhode Island bent is so expensive that we 
rarely buy it. For grass in shady places, as in a grove, we use 
Kentucky blue-grass and rough-stalked meadow-grass (Poa 
trivialis) in equal parts at the rate of seventy pounds to the 
acre. On the golf links we use blue-grass without any mixture 
on some of the putting greens; sometimes we use Rhode Island 
bent, and on sandy greens we use red-top. We always buy 
each kind of seed separately and mix them, and are particular 
to get the best extra recleaned of each kind. Frequently we 
get the seed of three different dealers to secure the best." 

In most cases, the June-grass germinates and grows some- 
what slowly, and it is usually advisable to sow four or five 
quarts of timothy grass to the acre with the June-grass seed. 
The timothy comes on quickly and makes a green the first year, 
and the June-grass soon crowds it out. It is not advisable to 
sow grain in the lawn as a nurse to the grass. If the land is 
well prepared and the seed is sown in the cool part of the year, 
the grass ought to grow much better without the other crops 
than with them. Lands that are hard and lacking in nitrogen 
may -be benefited if crimson clover (four or five quarts) is 
sown with the grass seed. This will make a green the first year, 
and will break up the subsoil by its deep roots and supply nitro- 
gen, and being an annual plant it does not become trouble- 
some, if mown frequently enough to prevent seeding. 

In the southern states, where June-grass does not thrive, 
Bermuda-grass is the leading species used for lawns; although 
there are two or three others, as the goose-grass of Florida, that 
may be used in special localities. Bermuda-grass is usually 



80 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

propagated by roots, but imported seed (said to be from Austra- 
lia) is now available. The Bermuda-grass becomes reddish 
after frost; and English rye-grass may be sown on the Bermuda 
sod in August or September far south for winter green; in 
spring the Bermuda crowds it out. 

When and how to sow the seed. 

The lawn should be seeded when the land is moist and the 
weather comparatively cool. It is ordinarily most advisable to 
grade the lawn in late summer or early fall, because the land is 
then comparatively dry and can be moved cheaply. The surface 
can also be got in condition, perhaps, for sowing late in Septem- 
ber or early in October in the North; or, if the surface has re- 
quired much filling, it is well to leave it in a somewhat unfinished 
state until spring, in order that the soft places may settle and 
then be refilled before the seeding is done. If the seed can be 
sown early in the fall, before the rains come, the grass should be 
large enough, except in northernmost localities, to withstand the 
winter; but it is generally most desirable to sow in very early 
spring. If the land has been thoroughly prepared in the fall, 
the seed may be sown on one of the late light snows in spring and 
as the snow melts the seed is carried into the land, and germi- 
nates very quickly. If the seed is sown when the land is loose 
and workable, it should be raked in ; and if the weather promises 
to be dry or the sowing is late, the surface should be rolled. 

The seeding is usually done broadcast by hand on all small 
areas, the sower going both ways (at right angles) across the 
area to lessen the likelihood of missing any part. Steep banks 
are sometimes sown with seed that is mixed in mold or earth to 
which water is added until the material will just run through 
the spout of a watering-can ; the material is then poured on the 
surface, which is first made loose. 

Inasmuch as we desire to secure many very fine stalks of 
grass rather than a few large ones, it is essential that the seed 



EXECUTION OF SOME OF THE LANDSCAPE FEATURES 81 

be sown very thick. Three to five bushels to the acre is the 
ordinary application of grass seed (page 79). 

Securing a firm sod. 

The lawn will ordinarily produce a heavy crop of weeds the 
first year, especially if much stable manure has been used. 
The weeds need not be pulled, unless such vicious intruders as 
docks or other perennial plants gain a foothold; but the area 
should be mown frequently with a lawn-mower. The annual 
weeds die at the approach of cold, and they are kept down by 
the use of the lawn-mower, while the grass is not injured. 

It rarely happens that every part of the lawn will have an 
equal catch of grass. The bare or sparsely seeded places should 
be sown again every fall and spring until the lawn is finally com- 
plete. In fact, it requires constant attention to keep a lawn 
in good sod, and it must be continuously in the process of mak- 
ing. It is not every lawn area, or every part of the area, that is 
adapted to grass; and it may require long study to find out why 
it is not. Bare or poor places should be hetcheled up strongly 
with an iron-toothed rake, perhaps fertilized again, and then 
reseeded. It is unusual that a lawn does not need repairing 
every year. Lawns of several acres which become thin and 
mossy may be treated in essentially the same way by dragging 
them with a spike-tooth harrow in early spring as soon as the 
land is dry enough to hold a team. Chemical fertilizers and 
grass seed are now sown liberally, and the area is perhaps 
dragged again, although this is not always essential^ and then 
the roller is applied to bring the surface into a smooth condition. 
To plow up these poor lawns is to renew all the battle with weeds, 
and really to make no progress ; for, so long as the contour i3 
correct, the lawn may be repaired by these surface applications. 

The stronger the sward, the less the trouble with weeds ; yet 
it is practically impossible to keep dandelions and some other 
weeds out of lawns except by cutting them out with a knife 



82 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

c 

thrust underground (there are good spuds manufactured for 
this purpose, Figs. 108 to 111). If the sod is very thin after 
the weeds are removed, sow more grass seed. 

The mowing. 

The mowing of the lawn should begin as soon as the grass is 
tall enough in the spring and continue at the necessary intervals 
throughout the summer. The most frequent mowings are 
needed early in the season, when the grass is growing rapidly. 
If it is mown frequently — say once or twice a week — in the 
periods of most vigorous growth, it will not be necessary to 
rake off the mowings. In fact, it is preferable to leave the 
grass on the lawn, to be driven into the surface by the rains 
and to afford a mulch. It is only when the lawn has been neg- 
lecte'd and the grass has got so high that it becomes unsightly 
on the lawn, or when the growth is unusually luxurious, that 
it is necessary to take it off. In dry weather care should be 
taken not to mow the lawn any more than absolutely necessary. 
The grass should be i^oher long when it goes into the winter. 
In the last two months of open weather the grass makes small 
growth, and it tends to lop down and to cover the surface 
densely, which it should be allowed to do. 

Fall treatment. 

As a rule, it is not necessary to rake all the leaves off lawns in 
the fall. They afford an excellent mulch, and in the autumn 
months the leaves on the lawn are among the most attractive 
features of the landscape. The leaves generally blow off after 
a time, and if the place has been constructed with an open center 
and heavily planted sides, the leaves will be caught in these 
masses of trees and shrubs and there afford an excellent mulch. 
The ideal landscape planting, therefore, takes care of itself to 
a very large extent. It is bad economy to burn the leaves, 



EXECUTION OF SOME OF THE LANDSCAPE FEATURES 83 



■ 



especially if one has herbaceous borders, roses, and other plants 
that need a mulch. When the leaves are taken off the borders 
in the spring, they should be piled with the manure or other 
refuse and there allowed to pass into compost (pages 110, 111). 
If the land has been well prepared in the beginning, and its 
life is not sapped by large trees, it is ordinarily unnecessary 
to cover the lawn with manure in the fall. The common prac- 
tice of covering grass with raw manure should be discouraged 
because the material is unsightly and unsavory, and the same 
results can be got with the use of commercial fertilizers combined 
with dressings of very fine and well-rotted compost or manure, 
and by not raking the lawn too clean of the mowings of the grass. 

Spring treatment. 

Every spring the lawn should be firmed by means of a roller, 
or, if the area is small, by means of a pounder, or the back of a 
spade in the hands of a vigorous man. The lawn-mower itself 
tends to pack the surface. If there are little irregularities 
in the surface, caused by depressions o£,/m inch or so, and the 
highest places are not above the contour-line of the lawn, the 
surface may be brought to level by spreading fine, mellow soil 
over it, thereby filling up the depressions. The grass will 
quickly grow through this soil. Little hummocks may be 
cut off, some of the earth removed, and the sod replaced. 

Watering lawns. 

The common watering of lawns by means of lawn sprinklers 
usually does more harm than good. This results from the fact 
that the watering is generally done in clear weather, and the 
water is thrown through the air in very fine spray, so that a 
considerable part of it is lost in vapor. The ground is also hot, 
and the water does not pass deep into the soil. If the lawn is 
watered at all, it should be soaked; turn on the hose at night- 
fall and let it run until the land is wet as deep as it is dry, then 



84 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

move the hose to another place. A thorough soaking like this, 
a few times in a dry summer, will do more good than sprin- 
kling every, day. If the land is deeply prepared in the first place, 
so that the roots strike far into the soil, there is rarely need of 
watering unless the place is arid, the season unusually dry, or 
the moisture sucked out by trees. The surface sprinkling en- 
genders a tendency of roots to start near the surface, and there- 
fore the more the lawn is lightly watered, the greater is the 
necessity for watering it. 

Sodding the lawn. 

Persons who desire to secure a lawn very quickly may sod. 
the area rather than seed it, although the most permanent 
results are usually secured by seeding. Sodding, however, is 
expensive, and is to be used only about the borders of the 
place, near buildings, or in areas in which the owner can afford 
to expend considerable money. The best sod is that which is 
secured from an old pasture, and for two or three reasons. In 

the first place, it is the right kind 
of grass, the June-grass (in the 
North) being the species that often- 
est runs into pastures and crowds 
out other plants. Again, it has 
been so closely eaten down, espe- 

77. Cutting sod for a lawn. • n •? . , ■, , . , , 

cially it it has been pastured by 
sheep, that it has made a very dense and well-filled sod, which 
can be rolled up in thin layers. In the third place, the soil in 
old pastures is likely to be rich from the droppings of animals. 
In taking sod, it is important that it be cut very thin. An 
inch and a half thick is usually ample. It is ordinarily rolled 
up in strips a foot wide and of any length that will allow the 
rolls to be handled by one or two men. A foot-wide board is 
laid upon the turf, and the sod cut along either edge of it. One. 
person then stands upon the strip of sod and rolls it towards 




EXECUTION OF SOME OF THE LANDSCAPE FEATURES 85 

himself, while another cuts it loose with a spade, as shown 
in Fig. 77. When the sod is laid, it is unrolled on the land 
and then firmly beaten down. Land that is to be sodded 
should be soft on top, so that the sod can be well pounded 
into it. If the sod is not well pounded down, it will settle 
unevenly and present a bad surface, and will also dry out and 
perhaps not live through a dry spell. It is almost impossible 
to pound down sod too firm. If the land is freshly plowed, 
it is important that the borders that are sodded be an inch or 
two lower than the adjacent land, because the land will set- 
tle in the course of a few weeks. In a dry time, the sod may be 
covered from a half inch to an inch with fine, mellow soil as a 
mulch. The grass should grow through this soil without diffi- 
culty. Upon terraces and steep banks, the sod may be held 
in place by driving wooden pegs through it. 

A combination of 

sodding and seeding. 

An " economical sodding" is described in " American Garden " 
(Fig. 78) : "To obtain sufficient sod of suitable quality for cov- 
ering terrace-slopes or small blocks that for any reason cannot 
well be seeded is often a difficult matter. In the accompany- 
ing illustration we show how a surface of sod may be used to 
good advantage over a larger area than its real measurement 
represents. This is done by laying the sods, cut in strips from 




78. Economical sodding, the spaces being seeded. 



86 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

six to ten inches wide, in lines and cross-lines, and after filling 
the spaces with good soil, sowing these spaces with grass-seed. 
Should the catch of seed for any reason be poor, the sod of the 
strips will tend to spread over the spaces between them, and 
failure to obtain a good sward within a reasonable time is 
almost out of the question. Also, if one needs sod and has no 
place from which to cut it except the lawn, by taking up blocks 
of sod, leaving strips and cross-strips, and treating the surface 
as described, the bare places are soon covered with green." 

Sowing with sod. 

Lawns may be sown with pieces of sods rather than with 
seeds. Sods may be cut up into bits an inch or two square, 
and these may be scattered broadcast over the area and rolled 
into the land. While it is preferable that the pieces should 
lie right side up, this is not necessary if they are cut thin, and 
sown when the weather is cool and moist. Sowing pieces of sod 
is good practice when it is difficult to secure a catch from seed. 

If one were to maintain a permanent sod garden, at one side, 
for the selecting and growing of the very best sod (as he would 
grow a stock seed of corn or beans), this method should be the 
most rational of all procedures, at least until the time that we 
produce strains of lawn grass that come true from seeds. 

Other ground covers. 

Under trees, and in other shady places, it may be necessary 
to cover the ground with something else than grass. Good 
plants for such uses are periwinkle (Vinca minor, an evergreen 
trailer, often called " running myrtle"), moneywort (Lysi- 
machia nummularia), lily-of-the-valley, and various kinds of 
sedge or carex. In some dark or shady places, and under 
some kinds of trees, it is practically impossible to secure a 
good lawn, and one may be obliged to resort to decumbent 
bushes or other forms of planting. 



CHAPTER IV 

THE HANDLING OF THE LAND 

Almost any land contains enough food for the growing of 
good crops, but the food elements may be chemically unavail- 
able, or there may be insufficient water to dissolve them. It 
is too long a story to explain at this place, — the philosophy of 
tillage and of enriching the land, — and the reader who desires 
to make excursions into this delightful subject should consult 
King on "The Soil," Roberts on "The Fertility of the Land," 
and recent writings of many kinds. The reader must accept 
my word for it that tilling the land renders it productive. 

I must call my reader's attention to the fact that this book 
is on the making of gardens, — on the planning and the doing 
of the work from the year's end to end, — not on the apprecia- 
tion of a completed garden. I want the reader to know that a 
garden is not worth having unless he makes it with his own 
hands or helps to make it. He must work himself into it. 
He must know the pleasure of preparing the land, of contend- 
ing with bugs and all other difficulties, for it is only thereby 
that he comes into appreciation of the real value of a garden. 

I am saying this to prepare the reader for the work that I 
lay out in this chapter. I want him to know the real joy that 
there is in the simple processes of breaking the earth and fitting 
it for the seed. The more pains he takes with these processes, 
naturally the keener will be his enjoyment of them. No one 
can have any other satisfaction than that of mere manual exer- 
cise if he does not know the reasons for what he does with his 
soil. I am sure that my keenest delight in a garden comes in 
the one month of the opening season and the other month of 

87 



88 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



the closing season. These are the months when I work 
hardest and when I am nearest the soil. To feel the thrust of 
the spade, to smell the sweet earth, to prepare for the young 
plants and then to prepare for the closing year, to handle the 
tools with discrimination, to guard against frost, to be close 
with the rain and wind, to see the young things start into life 
and then to see them go down into winter, — these are some of 
the best of the joys of gardening. In this spirit we should take 
up the work of handling the land. 

The draining of the land. 

The first step in the preparation of land, after it has been 
thoroughly cleared and subdued of forest or previous vegetation, 
is to attend to the drainage. All land that 
is springy, low, and "sour," or that holds 
the water in puddles for a day or two fol- 
lowing heavy rains, should be thoroughly 
underdrained. Draining also improves 
the physical condition of the soil even 
when the land does not need the removal 
of superfluous water. In hard lands, it 
lowers the water-table, or tends to loosen 
and aerate the soil to a greater depth, 
and thereby enables it to hold more water 
without injury to plants. Drainage is 
particularly useful in dry but hard garden 
lands, because these lands are often in sod or permanently 
planted, and the soil cannot be broken up by deep tillage. 
Tile drainage is permanent subsoiling. 

Hard-baked cylindrical tiles make the best and most per- 
manent drains. The ditches usually should not be less than 
two and one-half feet deep, and three or three and one-half 
feet is often better. In most garden areas, drains may be 
laid with profit as often as every thirty feet. Give all drains 




Ditching tools 



THE HANDLING OF THE LAND 



89 



a good and continuous fall. For single drains and for laterals 
not over four hundred or five hundred feet long, a two and one- 
half inch tile is sufficient, unless much water must be carried 
from swales or springs. In stony countries, flat stones may be 
used in place of tiles, and persons who are skillful in laying 
them make drains as good and permanent as those constructed 
of tiles. The tiles or stones are covered with sods, straw, or 
paper, and the earth is then filled in. This temporary cover 




80. How to use a spade. 



keeps the loose dirt out of the tiles, and by the time it is rotted 
the earth has settled into place. 

In small places, ditching must ordinarily be done wholly 
with hand tools. A common spade and pick are the imple- 
ments usually employed, although a spade with a long handle 
and narrow blade, as shown in Fig. 79, is very useful for exca- 
vating the bottom of the ditch. 

In most cases, much time and muscle are wasted in the use of 
the pick. If the digging is properly done, a spade can be used 
to cut the soil, even in fairly hard clay land, with no great 
difficulty. The essential point in the easy use of the spade 
is to manage so that one edge of the spade always cuts a free 
or exposed surface. The illustration (Fig. 80) will explain the 
method. When the operator endeavors to cut the soil in the 



90 MAX UAL OF GARDENING 

method shown at a, he is obliged to break both edges at every 
thrust of the tool; but when he cuts the slice diagonally, first 
throwing his spade to the right and then to the left, as shown 
at b, he cuts only one side and is able to make progress without 
the expenditure of useless effort. These remarks will apply to 
any spading of the land. 

In large areas, horses may be used to facilitate the work of 
ditching. There are ditching plows and machines, which, 
however, need not be discussed here; but three or four furrows 
may be thrown out in either direction with a strong plow, and 
a subsoil plow be run behind to break up the hard-pan, and 
this may reduce the labor of digging as much as one-half. 
When the excavating is completed, the bottom of the ditch is 
evened up by means of a line or level, and the bed for the 
tiles is prepared by the use of a goose-neck scoop, shown in 
Fig. 79. It is very important that the outlets of drains be kept 
free of weeds and litter. If the outlet is built up with mason 
work, to hold the end of the tile intact, very much will be added 
to the permanency of the drain. 

Trenching and sub soiling. 

Although underdraining is the most important means of 
increasing the depth of the soil, it is not always practicable 




Trenching with a spade. 



to lay drains through garden lands. In such cases, recourse 
is had to very deep preparation of the land, either every year 
or every two or three years. 



THE HANDLING OF THE LAND 91 

In small garden areas, this deep preparation will ordinarily 
be done by trenching with a spade. This operation of trench- 
ing consists in breaking up the earth two spades deep. Figure 81 
explains the operation. The section at the left shows a single 
spading, the earth being thrown over to the right, leaving the 
subsoil exposed the whole width of the bed. The section at 
the right shows a similar operation, so far as the surface spading 
is concerned, but the subsoil has also been cut as fast as it has 
been exposed. This under soil is not thrown out on the surface, 




82. Home-made subsoil plow. 

and usually it is not inverted; but a spadeful is lifted and then 
allowed to drop so that it is thoroughly broken and pulverized 
in the manipulation. 

In all lands that have a hard and high subsoil, it is usually 
essential to practice trenching if the best results are to be 
secured; this is especially true when deep-rooted plants, as 
beets, parsnips, and other root-crops, are to be grown; it pre- 
pares the soil to hold moisture; and it allows the water of heavy 
rainfall to pass to greater depths rather than to be held as 
puddles and in mud on the surface. 

In places that can be entered with a team, deep and heavy 
plowing to the depth of seven to ten inches may be desirable 
on hard lands, especially if such lands cannot be plowed very 



92 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

often; and the depth of the pulverization is often extended 
by means of the subsoil plow. This subsoil plow does not turn 
a furrow, but a second team draws the implement behind the 
ordinary plow, and the bottom of the furrow is loosened and 




83. Forms of subsoil plows. 

broken. Figure 82 shows a home-made subsoil plow, and Fig. 
83 two types of commercial tools. It must be remembered that 
it is the hardest lands that need subsoiling and that, therefore, 
the subsoil plow should be exceedingly strong. 

Preparation of the surface. 

Every pains should be taken to prevent the surface of the 
land from becoming crusty or baked, for the hard surface estab- 
lishes a capillary connection with the moist soil beneath, and is 
a means of passing off the water into the atmosphere. Loose 
and mellow soil also has more free plant-food, and provides 
the most congenial conditions for the growth of plants. The 
tools that one may use in preparing the surface soil are now 
so many and so well adapted to the work that the gardener 
should find special satisfaction in handling them. 

If the soil is a stiff clay, it is often advisable to plow it or dig 
it in the fall, allowing it to lie rough and loose all winter, so that 
the weathering may pulverize and slake it. If the clay is very 



THE HANDLING OF THE LAND 93 

tenacious, it may be necessary to throw leafmold or litter 
over the surface before the spading is done, to prevent the soil 
from running together or cementing before spring. With 
mellow and loamy lands, however, it is ordinarily best to leave 
the preparation of the surface until spring. 

In the preparation of the surface, the ordinary hand tools, 
or spades and shovels, may be used. If, however, the soil is 
mellow, a fork is a better tool than a spade, from the fact that 
it does not slice the soil, but tends to break it up into smaller 
and more irregular masses. The ordinary spading- 
fork, with strong flat tines, is a most serviceable 
tool; a spading-fork for soft ground may be made 
from an old manure fork by cutting down the tines, 
as shown in Fig. 84. 

It is important that the soil should not be sticky 
when it is prepared, as it is likely to become hard 
and baked and the physical condition be greatly // // 
injured. However, land that is too wet for the 84. improvis- 
reception of seeds may still be thrown up loose in s a spad- 
with a spade or fork and allowed to dry, and after 
two or three days the surface preparation may be completed 
with the hoe and the rake. In ordinary soils the hoe is the 
tool to follow the spading-fork or the spade, but for the final 
preparation of the surface a steel garden-rake is the ideal 
implement. 

In areas, large enough to admit horse tools, the land can be 
fitted more economically by means of the various types of 
plows, harrows, and cultivators that are to be had of any dealer 
in agricultural implements. Figure 85 shows various types of 
model surface plows. The one shown at the upper left-hand 
is considered by Roberts, in his " Fertility of the Land," to be 
the ideal general-purpose plow, as respects shape and method 
of construction. 

The type of machine to be used must be determined wholly 



94 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



by the character of the land and the purposes for which it is 
to be fitted. Lands that are hard and cloddy may be reduced 
by the use of the disk or Acme harrows, shown in Fig. 86; but 




85. Excellent types of surface plows. 

those that are friable and mellow may not need such heavy 
and vigorous tools. On these mellower lands, the spring-tooth 




86. Disk and Acme harrows, for the first working of hard or cloddy land. 

harrow, types of which are shown in Fig. 87, may follow the 
plow. On very hard lands, these spring-tooth harrows may 
follow the disk and Acme types. The final preparation of the 



THE HANDLING OF THE LAND 



95 



land is accomplished by light implements of the pattern shown 
in Fig. 88. These spike-tooth smoothing-harrows do for the 
field what the hand-rake 
does for the garden-bed. 

If it is desired to put 
a very fine finish on the 
surface of the ground by 
means of horse tools, im- 
plements like the Breed 
or Wiard weeder may be 
used. These are con- 
structed on the principle 
of a spring-tooth horse 
hay-rake, and are most 
excellent, not only for 
fitting loose land for or- 
dinary seeding, but also 
for subsequent tillage. 

In areas that cannot 

i , t . , v , 87. Spring-tooth harrows. 

be entered with a team, 

various one-horse implements may do the work that is accom- 
plished by heavier tools in the field. The spring-tooth culti- 
vator, shown at the right in Fig. 89, may do the kind of work 

that the spring-tooth 
harrows are expected to 
do on larger areas; and 
various adjustable spike- 
tooth cultivators, two of 
which are shown in Fig. 
89, are useful for putting 
a finish on the land. These tools are also available for the till- 
ing of the surface when crops are growing. The spring-tooth 
cultivator is a most useful tool for cultivating raspberries and 
blackberries, and other strong-rooted crops. 





Spike-tooth harrow. 



96 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




Spike-tooth and spring-tooth cultivators. 



For still smaller areas, in which horses cannot be used and 
which are still too large for tilling wholly by means of hoes 




90. Good type of 
wheel-hoe. 



91. A single-blade 
wheel-hoe. 



92. Double wheel- 
hoe, useful in 
straddling the row. 



and rakes, various types of wheel-hoes may be used. These 
implements are now made in great variety of patterns, to 



THE HANDLING OF THE LAND 97 

suit any taste and almost any kind of tillage. For the best 
results, it is essential that the wheel should be large and with a 
broad tire, that it may override obstacles. Figure 90 shows an 
excellent type of wheel-hoe with five blades, and Fig. 91 shows 
one with a single blade and that may be used in very narrow 
rows. Two-wheeled hoes (Fig. 92) are often used, particularly 
when it is necessary to have the implement very steady, and 
the wheels may straddle the rows of low plants. Many of these 
wheel-hoes are provided with various shapes of blades, so that 
the implement may be adjusted to many kinds of work. Nearly 
all the weeding of beds of onions and like plants can be done 
by means of these wheel-hoes, if the ground is well prepared in 
the beginning; but it must be remembered that they are of 
comparatively small use on very hard and cloddy and stony 
lands. 






The saving of moisture. 

The garden must have a liberal supply of moisture. The 
first effort toward securing this supply should be the saving 
of the rainfall water. 

Proper preparation and tillage put the land in such condition 
that it holds the water of rainfall. Land that is very hard and 
compact may shed the rainfall, particularly if it is sloping and 
if the surface is bare of vegetation. If the hard-pan is near the 
surface, the land cannot hold much water, and any ordinary 
rainfall may fill it so full that it overflows, or puddles stand on 
the surface. On land in good tilth, the water of rainfall sinks 
away, and is not visible as free water. 

As soon as the moisture begins to pass from the superin- 
cumbent atmosphere, evaporation begins from the surface of 
the land. Any body interposed between the land and the air 
checks this evaporation; this is why there is moisture under- 
neath a board. It is impracticable, however, to floor over the 
garden with boards, but any covering will have similar effect, 



98 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

but in different degree. A covering of sawdust or leaves or 
dry ashes wall prevent the loss of moisture. So will a cover- 
ing of dry earth. Now, inasmuch as the land is already cov- 
ered with earth, it only remains to loosen up a layer or stratum 
on top in order to secure the mulch. 

All this is only a roundabout way of saying that frequent 
shallow surface tillage conserves moisture. The comparatively 
dry and loose mulch breaks up the capillary connection be- 
tween the surface soil and the under soil, and while the mulch 
itself may be useless as a foraging ground for roots, it more than 
pays its keep by its preventing of the loss of moisture; and its 
own soluble plant -foods are washed down into the lower soil by 
the rains. 

As often as the surface becomes compact, the mulch should 
be renewed or repaired by the use of the rake or cultivator or 
harrow. Persons are deceived by supposing that so long as 
the surface remains moist, the land is in the best possible condi- 
tion; a moist surface may mean that water is rapidly passing 
off into the atmosphere. A dry surface may mean that less 
evaporation is taking place, and there may be moister earth 
beneath it; and moisture is needed below the surface rather 
than on top. A finely raked bed is dry on top; but the foot- 
prints of the cat remain moist, for the animal packed the soil 
wherever it stepped and a capillary connection was established 
with the water reservoir beneath. Gardeners advise firming the 
earth over newly planted seeds to hasten germination. This is 
essential in dry times; but what we gain in hastening germina- 
tion we lose in the more rapid evaporation of moisture. The 
lesson is that we should loosen the soil as soon as the seeds have 
germinated, to reduce evaporation to the minimum. Large 
seeds, as beans and peas, may be planted deep and have the 
earth firmed about them, and then the rake may be applied to 
the surface to stop the rise of moisture before it reaches the air. 

Two illustrations, adapted from Roberts's " Fertility," show 



THE HANDLING OF THE LAND 



99 



good and poor preparation of the land. Figure 93 is a section of 
land twelve inches deep. The under soil has been finely broken 
and pulverized and then compacted. It is mellow but firm, 
and is an excellent water reservoir. Three inches of the surface 
is a mulch of loose and dry earth. Figure 94 shows an earth- 




y^S i fca-rti i. ! i .. r- -•■ vi^ih-iinVM-' iA^i : — ; ^__ 



93. To illustrate good preparation of ground. 

mulch, but it is too shallow; and the under soil is so open and 
cloddy that the water runs through it. 

When the land is once properly prepared, the soil-mulch is 
maintained by surf ace- working tools. In field practice, these 
tools are harrows and horse cultivators of various kinds; in 
home garden practice they are wheel-hoes, rakes, and many 
patterns of hand hoes and scarifiers, with finger-wee ders and 
other small implements for work directly among the plants. 



100 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



A garden soil is not in good condition when it is hard and 
crusted on top. The crust may be the cause of wasting water, 
it keeps out the air, and in general it is an uncongenial physical 
condition; but its evaporation of water is probably its chief 
defect. Instead of pouring water on the land, therefore, we 




94. To illustrate poor preparation of ground. 

first attempt to keep the moisture in the land. If, however, 
the soil becomes so dry in spite of you that the plants do not 
thrive, then water the bed. Do not sprinkle it, but water it. 
Wet it clear through at evening. Then in the morning, when 
the earth begins to dry, loosen the surface again to keep the 
water from getting away. Sprinkling the plants every day or 
two is one of the surest ways of spoiling them. We may water 
the ground with a garden-rake. 



THE HANDLING OF THE LAND 101 



Hand tools for weeding and subsequent Ullage and other hand 
work. 

Any of the cultivators and wheel-hoes are as useful for the 
subsequent tilling of the crop as for the initial preparation of 
the land, but there are other tools also that greatly facilitate 
the keeping of the plantation in order. Yet wholly aside from 
the value of a tool as an implement of tillage and as a weapon 
for the pursuit of weeds, is its merit merely as a shapely and 
interesting instrument. A man will take infinite pains to choose 
a gun or a fishing-rod to his liking, and a woman gives her best 
attention to the selecting of an umbrella; but a hoe is only 
a hoe and a rake only a rake. If one puts his personal choice 
into the securing of plants for a garden, so should he discrimi- 
nate in the choice of hand tools, to secure those that are light, 
trim, well made, and precisely adapted to the work to be ac- 
complished. A case of neat garden tools ought to be a great 
joy to a joyful gardener. So I am willing to enlarge on the 
subject of hoes and their kind. 

The hoe. 

The common rectangular-bladed hoe is so thoroughly 
established in the popular mind that it is very difficult to 
introduce new patterns, even though 
they may be intrinsically superior. As 
a general-purpose tool, it is no doubt 
true that a common hoe is better than 
any of its modifications, but there are 
various patterns of hoe-blades that are 95. useful forms of hoe- 
greatly superior for special uses, and blades. 
which ought to appeal to any quiet soul who loves a garden. 

The great width of the common blade does not admit of its 
being used in very narrow rows or very close to delicate plants, 
and it does not allow of the deep stirring of the soil in narrow 




102 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



spaces. It is also difficult to enter hard ground with such a 
broad face. Various pointed blades have been introduced from 




96. A stack of gardening weapons, comprising some of Tarryer's 
weeding spuds and thimbles. 

time to time, and most of them have merit. Some persons 
prefer two points to the hoe, as shown in Marvin's blades, in 



THE HANDLING OF THE LAND 



103 



Fig. 95. These interesting shapes represent the suggestions of 
gardeners who will not be bound by what the market affords, 
but who have blades cut and fitted for their own satisfaction. 

Persons who followed the entertaining writings of one who 
called himself Mr. A. B. Tarryer, in " American Garden/' a 
few years back, will recall the great variety of implements that 
he advised for the purpose of extirpating his hereditary foes, 
the weeds. A variety of these blades and tools is shown in 
Figs. 96 and 97. I shall let 
Mr. Tarryer tell his story at 
some length in order to lead 
my reader painlessly into a new 
field of gardening pleasures. 

Mr. Tarryer contends that the 
wheel-hoe is much too clumsy 
an affair to allow of the pursuit 
of an individual weed. While 
the operator is busy adjusting 
his machine and manipulating 
it about the corners of the 
garden, the quack-grass has 
escaped over the fence or has 
gone to seed at the other end of the plantation. He devised 
an expeditious tool for each little work to be performed 
on the garden, — for hard ground and soft, for old weeds and 
young (one of his implements was denominated "infant- 
damnation"). 

" Scores of times during the season," Mr. Tarryer writes, 
"the ten or fifteen minutes one has to enjoy in the flower, 
fruit, and vegetable garden — and that would suffice for the 
needful weeding with the hoes we are celebrating — would be 
lost in harnessing horses or adjusting and oiling squeaky 
wheel-hoes, even if everybody had them. The ' American 
Garden' is not big enough, nor my patience long enough, to 




Some of the details of the Tarryer 
tools. 



104 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

give more than an inkling of the unspeakable merits of these 
weapons of society and civilization. When Mrs. Tarryer was 
showing twelve or fifteen acres of garden with never a weed to 
be seen, she valued her dozen or more of these light implements 
at five or ten dollars daily; whether they were in actual use or 
adorning the front hall, like a hunter's or angler's furniture, 
made no difference. But where are these millennial tools 
made and sold? Nowhere. They are as unknown as the 
Bible was in the dark ages, and we must give a few hints to- 
wards manufacturing them. 

" First, about the handles. The ordinary dealer or workman 
may say these knobs can be formed on any handles by winding 
them with leather; but just fancy a young maiden setting up 
her hoe meditatively and resting her hands and chin upon an 
old leather knob to reflect upon something that has been said 
to her in the garden, and we shall perceive that a knob by some 
other name would smell far sweeter. Moreover, trees grow 
large enough at the butt to furnish all the knobs we want — 
even for broom-sticks — though sawyers, turners, dealers, 
and the public seem not to be aware of it; yet it must be con- 
fessed we are so far gone in depravity that there will be trouble 
in getting those handles. . . . 

"In a broadcast prayer of this public nature, absolute speci- 
fications would not be polite. Black walnut and butternut 
are fragrant as well as beautiful timber. Cherry is stiff, heavy, 
durable, and, like maple, takes a slippery polish. For fine, 
light handles, that the palm will stick to, butt cuts of poplar 
or cottonwood cannot be excelled, yet straight-grained ash will 
bear more careless usage. 

"The handles of Mrs. Tarryer's hoes are never perfectly 
straight. All the bayonet class bend downward in use half 
an inch or more; all the thrust-hoe handles bend up in a 
regular curve (like a fiddle-bow turned over) two or three 
inches. Unless they are hung right, these hoes are very awk- 



THE HANDLING OF THE LAND 



105 



ward things. When perfectly fit for one, they may not fit 
another; that is, a tall, keen-sighted person cannot use the 
hoe that is just fit for a very short one. . . . Curves in the 
handles throw centers of gravity 
where they belong. Good timber 
generally warps in a handle about 
right, only implement makers and 





98. A scarifier. 



99. Home-made 
scarifier. 



babes in weeding may not know when it is 
made fast right side up in the hoe. 

" There are plenty of thrust-hoes in market, 
such as they are. Some have malleable iron 
sockets and bows — heavier to the buyer and 
cheaper to the dealer — instead of wrought- 
iron and steel, such as is required for true 
worth." 

Scarifiers. 




100. llome-raade 
scarifier or scraper. 



For many purposes, tools that scrape or 
scarify the surface are preferable to hoes that 
dig up the ground. Weeds may be kept down by cutting 
them off, as in walks and often in flower-beds, rather than 



106 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




by rooting them out. Figure 98 shows such a 
tool, and a home-made implement answering the 
same purpose is illustrated in Fig. 99. This latter 
tool is easily made from strong band-iron. An- 
other type is suggested in Fig. 100, representing 
a slicing-hoe made by fastening a 
sheet of good metal to the tines of 
a broken fork. The kind chiefly in 
the market is shown in Fig. 101. 

Hand-weeders. 

For small beds of flowers or vegetables, hand- 
weeders of various patterns are essential to easy 



101 . The com- 
mon scarifier. 





103. Ahand- 
weeder. 



104. A finger-weeder. 




and efficient work. One of the best patterns, 
with long and short handles, is shown in Fig. 

102. Another style, that may be J^Sdet. 
made at home of hoop-iron, is drawn 
in Fig. 103. A finger- weeder is illustrated in 
Fig. 104. In Fig. 105 a common form is shown. 
Many patterns of hand-weeders are in the mar- 
nall ket, and other forms will suggest themselves to 
hand-weeder. the operator. 

Trowels and their kind. 

Small hand-tools for digging, as trowels, dibbers, and spuds, 
may be had of dealers. In buying a trowel it is economy to 
pay an extra price and secure a steel blade with a strong shank 
that runs through the entire length of the handle. One of these 



THE HANDLING OF THE LAND 



107 



tools will last several years and may he used in hard 
ground, but the cheap trowels are generally hardly 
worth the buying. A solid wrought-iron trowel all in 



\jw 






r 



106. Long- 
handled 
trowel. 



107. 



Improvised 
trowel. 



108. Weed- 
spud. 



109. A good 
weed-spud. 



110. Weed-cutter. 



one piece is also manufactured, and is the most 
durable pattern. A steel trowel may be secured 
to a long handle; or the blade of a broken trowel 
may be utilized in the same way (Fig. 106). A 
very good trowel may also be made from 
a discarded blade of a mowing machine 
(Fig. 107), and it answers the purpose of a 
hand-weeder. 

Weed-spuds are shown in Figs. 108 to 111. 
The first is particularly serviceable in cutting 
docks and other strong weeds from lawns and 
pastures. It is provided with a brace to allow 
it to be thrust into the ground with the foot. It 
is seldom necessary to dig out perennial weeds to 
the tips of their deep roots, if the crown is severed 
a short distance below the surface. 




111. A weed- 
spud that lifts 
the weed. 



108 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




-;;f* 



>* 



112. Hand-roller. 



Rollers. 

It is often essential that the land be compacted after it has 
been spaded or hoed, and some kind of hand-roller is then use- 
ful. Very efficient iron rollers are in 
the market, but a good one can be 
made from a hard chestnut or oak log, 
as shown in Fig. 112. (It should be 
remembered that when the surface is 
hard and compact, water escapes from 
it rapidly, and plants may suffer for 
moisture on arrival of warm weather.) 
The roller is useful in two ways — to 
compact the under-surface, in which case the surface should be 
again loosened as soon as the rolling is done; and to firm the 
earth about seeds (page 
98) or the roots of newly 
set plants. 



Markers. 



A marker may often 

be combined with the 

roller to good advantage, 

as in Fig. 113. Ropes 

are secured about the cylinder at proper intervals, and these 

mark the rows. Knots 
may be placed in the 
ropes to indicate the 




113. Roller and marker. 





114. Roller and marker. 



115. Marking-stick. 



THE HANDLING OF THE LAND 



109 



places where plants are to be set or seeds dropped. An ex- 
tension of the same idea is seen in Fig. 114, which shows iron 
or w wooden pegs that make holes in which very small plants 







116. Tool for spacing plants. 117. Barrow rigged with a marker. 

may be set. An L-shaped rod projects at one side to mark 
the place of the next row. 

In most cases the best and most expeditious method of mark- 










118. Hand sled-marker. 



ing out the garden is by the use of the garden line, which is 
secured to a reel (Fig. 96), but various other devices are often 
useful. For very small beds, drills or furrows may be made 
by a simple marking-stick (Fig. 115). A handy marker is shown 



110 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



in Fig. 116. A marker can be rigged to a wheel-barrow, as in 
Fig. 117. A rod is secured underneath the front truss, and 

from its end an adjust- 
able trailer, B, is hung. 
The wheel of the bar- 
row marks the row, and 
the trailer indicates the 
place of the next row, 
thereby keeping the 
rows parallel. A hand 
sled-marker is shown 
in Fig. 118, and a simi- 

119. Trailing sled-marker. laJ deyice may be ge _ 

cured to the frame of a sulky cultivator (Fig.*' 119) or other 
wheel tool. A good adjustable sled-marker is outlined in Fig. 
120. 




Enriching the land. 

Two problems are involved in the fertilizing of the land: 
the direct addition of plant-food, and the improvement of the 
physical structure of 
the soil. The latter 
office is often the more 
important. 

Lands that, on the 
one hand, are very 
hard and solid, with a 
tendency to bake, and, 
on the other, that are 
loose and leachy, are 
very greatly benefited 




120. Adjustable sled-marker. 



by the addition of organic matter. When this organic matter — 
as animal and plant remains — decays and becomes thoroughly 
incorporated with the soil, it forms what is called humus. The 



THE HANDLING OF THE LAND 111 

addition of this humus makes the land mellow, friable, retentive 
of moisture, and promotes the general chemical activities of the 
soil. It also puts the soil in the best physical condition for the 
comfort and well-being of the plants. Very many of the lands 
that are said to be exhausted of plant-food still contain enough 
potash, phosphoric acid, and lime, and other fertilizing elements, 
to produce good crops; but they have been greatly injured in 
their physical condition by long-continued cropping, injudicious 
tillage, and the withholding of vegetable matter. A part of the 
marked results secured from the plowing under of clover is due 
to the incorporation of vegetable matter, wholly aside from the 
addition of fertilizing material ; and this is emphatically true 
of clover because its deep-growing roots penetrate and break 
up the subsoil. 

Muck and leafmold are often very useful in ameliorating 
either very hard or very loose lands. Excellent humous mate- 
rial may be constantly at hand if the leaves, garden refuse, and 
some of the manure are piled and composted (p. 114). If the 
pile is turned several times a year, the material becomes fine 
and uniform in texture. 

The various questions associated with the fertilizing of the 
land are too large to be considered in detail here. Persons who 
desire to familiarize themselves with the subject should con- 
sult recent books. It may be said, however, that, as a rule, 
most lands contain all the elements of plant-food in sufficient 
quantities except potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen. In 
many cases, lime is very beneficial to land, usually because it 
corrects acidity and has a mechanical effect in pulverizing and 
flocculating clay and in cementing sands. 

The chief sources of commercial potash are muriate of potash, 
sulfate of potash, and wood ashes. For general purposes, the 
muriate of potash is now recommended, because it is com- 
paratively cheap and the composition is uniform. A normal 
application of muriate of potash is 200 to 300 pounds to the 



112 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

acre; but on some lands, where the greatest results are demanded, 
sometimes as much as twice this application may be made. 

Phosphoric acid is got in dissolved South Carolina and Flor- 
ida rock and in various bone preparations. These materials 
are applied at the rate of 200 to 400 pounds to the acre. 

Commercial nitrogen is secured chiefly in the form of animal 
refuse, as blood and tankage, and in nitrate of soda. It is 
more likely to be lost by leaching through the land than the 
mineral substances are, especially if the land lacks humus. 
Nitrate of soda is very soluble, and should be applied in small 
quantities at intervals. Nitrogen, being the element which is 
mostly conducive to vegetative growth, tends to delay the 
season of maturity if applied heavily or late in the season. 
From 100 to 300 pounds of nitrate of soda may be applied 
to the acre, but it is ordinarily better to make two or three 
applications at intervals of three to six weeks. Fertilizing 
materials maybe applied either in fall or spring; but in the 
case of nitrate of soda it is usually better not to apply in the fall 
unless the land has plenty of humus to prevent leaching, or on 
plants that start very early in the spring. 

Fertilizing material is sown broadcast, or it may be scattered 
lightly in furrows underneath the seeds, and then covered with 
earth. If sown broadcast, it may be applied either after the 
seeds are sown or before. It is usually better to apply it be- 
fore, for although the rains carry it down, nevertheless the 
upward movement of water during the dry weather of the 
summer tends to bring it back to the surface. It is important 
that large lumps of fertilizer, especially muriate of potash and 
nitrate of soda, do not fall near the crowns of the plants; 
otherwise the plants may be seriously injured. It is a general 
principle, also, that it is best to use more sparingly of fertilizers 
than of tillage. The tendency is to make fertilizers do penance 
for the sins of neglect, but the results do not often meet one's 
expectations. 






THE HANDLING OF THE LAND 113 

If one has only a small garden or a home yard, it ordinarily 
will not pay him to buy the chemicals separately, as sug- 
gested above, but he may purchase a complete fertilizer that 
is sold under a trademark or brand, and has a guaranteed 
analysis. If one is raising plants chiefly for their foliage, as 
rhubarb and ornamental bushes, he should choose a fertilizer 
comparatively rich in nitrogen; but if he desires chiefly fruit 
and flowers, the mineral elements, as potash and phosphoric 
acid, should usually be high. If one uses the chemicals, it is 
not necessary that they be mixed before application; in fact, 
it is usually better not to mix them, because some plants and 
some soils need more of one element than of another. Just 
what materials, and how much, different soils and plants re- 
quire must be determined by the grower himself by obser- 
vation and experiment; and it is one of the satisfactions of 
gardening to arrive at discrimination in such matters. 

Muriate of potash costs $40 and upwards per ton, sulfate 
about $48, dissolved boneblack about $24, ground bone about 
$30, kainit about $13, and nitrate of soda about 2}/i cents per 
pound. These prices vary, of course, with the composition or 
mechanical condition of materials, and with the state of the 
market. The average composition of unleached wood ashes 
in the market is about as follows: Potash, 5.2 per cent; phos- 
phoric acid, 1.70 per cent; lime, 34 per cent; magnesia, 3.40 
per cent. The average composition of kainit is 13.54 per 
cent potash, 1.15 per cent lime. 

The fact that the soil itself is the greatest storehouse of plant- 
food is shown by the following average of thirty-five analyses 
of the total content of the first eight inches of surface soils, 
per acre: 3521 pounds of nitrogen, 4400 pounds of phosphoric 
acid, 19,836 pounds of potash. Much of this is unavailable, 
but good tillage, green-manuring, and proper management 
tend to unlock it and at the same time to save it from waste. 

Every careful gardener will take satisfaction in saving leaves 




114 MANUAL OF GARDENING- 

and trimmings and stable refuse and making compost of it 
to supplement the native supplies in the soil. Some out-of-the- 
way corner will be found for a permanent pile, with room for 
piling it over from time to time. The pile will be screened by 
his garden planting. (Figure 121 suggests a useful cart for col- 
lecting such materials.) He will also save the power of his 
land by changing his crops to other 
parts of the garden, year by year, not 
growing his China asters or his snap- 
dragons or his potatoes or strawberries 
continuously on the same area; and 
thus, also, will his garden have a new 
121. A good cart for collect- face every year. 

ing leaves and other ma- Legt the reader t th M 

tenals. . . J ^ 

that there is no limit to be placed on 
the enriching of the soil, I will caution him at the end of my 
discussion that he may easily make the place so rich that 
some plants will overgrow and will not come into flower- 
ing or fruiting before frost, and flowers may lack brilliancy. 
On very rich land, scarlet sage will grow to great size but 
will not bloom in the northern season; sweet peas will run to 
vine; gaillardias and some other plants will break down; 
tomatoes and melons and peppers may be so late that the 
fruit will not ripen. Only experience and good judgment will 
safeguard the gardener as to how far he should or should 
not go. 



CHAPTER V 

THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 

There is a knack in the successful handling of plants that 
it is impossible to describe in print. All persons can improve 
their practice through diligent reading of useful gardening lit- 
erature, but no amount of reading and advice will make a good 
gardener of a person who does not love to dig in a garden or 
who does not have a care for plants just because they are plants. 

To grow a plant well, one must learn its natural habits. 
Some persons learn this as if by intuition, acquiring the knowl- 
edge from close discrimination of the behavior of the plant. 
Often they are themselves unconscious of this knack of knowing 
what will make the plant to thrive; but it is not at all necessary 
to have such an intuitive judgment to enable one to be even 
more than a fairly good gardener. Diligent attention to the 
plant's habits and requirements, and a real regard for the plant's 
welfare, will make any person a successful plant-grower. 

Some of the things that a person should know about any 
plant he would grow are these: — 

Whether the plant matures in the first, second, third, or 
subsequent years; and when it naturally begins to fail. 

The time of the year or season in which it normally grows, 
blooms, or fruits; and whether it can be forced at other 
seasons. 

Whether it prefers a situation dry or moist or wet, hot or 
cool, sunny or shady. 

Its preferences as to soil, whether very rich or only moder- 
ately rich, sand or loam, or peat or clay. 

Its hardiness as to frost, wind, drought, heat. 

115 



11G MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Whether it has any special requirements as to germina- 
tion, and whether it transplants well. 

Whether it is specially liable to attack by insects or 
disease. 

Whether it has a special inability to grow two years in 
succession on the same land. 

Having suited the situation to the plant, and having pre- 
pared the ground well and made a resolution to keep it well, 
special attention must be given to such matters as these: — 

Guarding from all insects and diseases ; and also from cats 

and chickens and dogs; and likewise from rabbits and 

mice. 
Protecting from weeds. 
Pruning, in the case of fruit trees and bushes, and also of 

ornamental woody plants on occasion, and sometimes 

even of annual herbs. 
Staking and tying, particularly of sprawly garden flowers. 
Persistent picking of seed pods or dead flowers from flower 

plants, in order to conserve the strength of the plant and 

to prolong its season of bloom. 
Watering in dry weather (but not sprinkling or dribbling) . 
Thorough winter protecting of plants that need it. 
Removing dead leaves, broken branches, weak and sickly 

plants, and otherwise keeping the place tidy and trim. 

Sowing the seeds. 

Prepare the surface earth well, to make a good seed-bed. 
Plant when the ground is moist, if possible, and preferably just 
before a rain if the soil is of such character that it will not bake. 
For shallow-planted seeds, firm the earth above them by walk- 
ing over the row or by patting it down with a hoe. Special 
care should be exercised not to sow very small and slow-ger- 
minating seeds, as celery, carrot, onion, in poorly prepared soil 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 117 

or in ground that bakes. With' such seeds it is well to sow- 
seeds of radish or turnip, for these germinate quickly and break 
the crust, and also mark the row so that tillage may be begun 
before the regular-crop seeds are up. 

Land may be prevented from baking over the seeds by scat- 
tering a very thin layer of fine litter, as chaff, or of sifted moss 
or mold, over the row. A board is sometimes laid on the row 
to retain the moisture, but it must be lifted gradually just as 
soon as the plants begin to break the ground, or the plants will 
be greatly injured. Whenever practicable, seed-beds of celery 
and other slow-germinating seeds should be shaded. If the 
beds are watered, be careful that the soil is not packed by the 
force of the water or baked by the sun. In thickly sown seed- 
beds, thin or transplant the plants as soon as they have made 
their first true leaves. 

For most home-grounds, seeds may be sown by hand, but for 
large areas of one crop, one of the many kinds of seed-sowers 
may be used. The particular methods of sowing seeds are usu- 
ally specified in the seed catalogues, if other than ordinary 
treatment is required. The sled-markers (already described, 
p. 108) open a furrow of sufficient depth for the planting of 
most seeds. If marker furrows are not available, a furrow may 
be opened with a hoe for such deep-planted seeds as peas and 
sweet peas, or by a trowel or end of a rakestale for smaller 
seeds. In narrow beds or boxes, a stick or ruler (Fig. 115) 
may be used for opening creases to receive the seeds. 

The depth at which seeds are to be planted varies with the 
kind, the soil and its preparation, the season, and whether they 
are planted in the open or in the house. In boxes and under 
glass, it is a good rule that the seed be sown at .a depth equal to 
twice its own diameter, but deeper sowing is usually necessary 
out of doors, particularly in hot and dry weather. Strong and 
hardy seeds, as peas, sweet peas, large fruit-tree seeds, may be 
planted three to six inches deep. Tender seeds, that are injured 



118 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



by cold and wet, may be planted after the ground is settled and 
warm at a greater depth than before that season. As a rule, 
nothing is gained by sowing tender seeds before the weather is 
thoroughly settled and the ground warm. 

Propagating by cuttings. 

Many common plants are propagated by cuttings rather than 
by seeds, particularly when it is desired to increase a particular 
variety. 

Cuttings are parts of plants inserted in soil or water with the 
intention that they shall grow and make new plants. They are 
of various kinds. They may be classified, with reference to 
the age of the wood or tissue, into two classes; viz. those made 
from perfectly hard or dormant wood (taken from the winter 
twigs of trees and bushes), and those made from more or less 
immature or growing wood. They may be classified again in 
respect to the part of the plants from which they are taken, as 
root-cuttings, tuber-cuttings (as the ordinary "seed" planted 
for potatoes), stem-cuttings, and leaf-cuttings. 

Dormant stem-cuttings. 

Dormant- wood cuttings are used for grapes (Fig. 122), 
currants, gooseberries, willows, poplars, and many other kinds of 
soft-wooded trees and shrubs. Such cuttings are ordinarily 

taken in fall or winter, but cut into 
soil the proper lengths and then buried in 

sand or moss where they do not freeze, 
in order that the lower end may heal 
over or callous. In the spring these 
cuttings are set in the ground, pref- 
erably in a rather sand}' and well- 
drained place. 

Usually, hardwood cuttings are 
made with two to four joints or buds, and when they are 




122. The planting of the 
dormant-wood cuttings. 




THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 119 

planted, only the upper bud projects above the ground. 
They may be planted erect, as Fig. 122 shows, or somewhat 
slanting. In order that the cutting may reach down to 
moist earth, it is desirable that it should not be less than 6 
in. long ; and it is sometimes better if it is 8 to 12 in. If the 
wood is short-jointed, there may be several 
buds on a cutting of this length; and in order 
to prevent too many shoots from arising from 
these buds the lowermost buds are often cut 
out. Roots will start as readily if the lower 
buds are removed, since the buds grow into 
shoots and not into roots. 

Cuttings of currants, grapes, gooseberries, 
and the like may be set in rows that are far 
enough apart to admit of easy tillage either 
with horse or hand tools, and the cuttings may 123 'J^ tion 
be placed 3 to 8 in. apart in the row. The 
English varieties of gooseberries, considerably grown in this 
country, do not propagate readily from cuttings. 

After the cuttings have grown one season, the plants are usu- 
ally transplanted and given more room for the second year's 
growth, after which time they are ready to be set in permanent 
plantations. In some cases, the plants are set at the end of the 
first year; but two-year plants are stronger and usually prefer- 
able. 

Cuttings of roots. 

Root-cuttings are used for blackberries, raspberries, and a 
few other things. They are ordinarily made of roots from the 
size of a lead pencil to one's little finger, and are cut in lengths 
from 3 to 5 in. long. The cuttings are stored the same as 
stem-cuttings and allowed to callous. In the spring they are 
planted in a horizontal or nearly horizontal position in moist 
sandy soil, being entirely covered to a depth of 1 or 2 in. 



120 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Green cuttings. 

Softwood or greenwood cuttings are usually made of wood 
that is mature enough to break when it is bent sharply. When 
the wood' is so soft that it will bend and not break, it is too 
immature, in the majority of plants, for the making of good 
cuttings. 

One to two joints is the proper length of a greenwood cutting. 

If of two joints, the lower leaves 
should be cut off and the upper 
leaves cut in two so that they do 
not present their entire surface to 
the air and thereby evaporate the 
plant juices too rapidly. If the cut- 
ting is of only one joint, the lower 
end is usually cut just above a joint. 
In either case, the cuttings are usu- 

124. Verbena cutting. 7 ° 

ally inserted in sand or well-washed 
gravel, nearly or quite up to the leaves. Keep the bed uniformly 
moist throughout its depth, but avoid any soil which holds so 
much moisture that it becomes muddy and sour. These cuttings 
should be shaded until they begin to emit their roots. Coleus, 
geraniums, fuchsias, carnations, and nearly all the common 
greenhouse and house plants, are propagated by these cuttings 
or slips (Figs. 123, 124). 

Cuttings of leaves. 

Leaf-cuttings are often used for the fancy-leaved begonias, 
gloxinias, and a few other plants. The young plant usually 
arises most readily from the leaf-stalk or petiole. The leaf, 
therefore, is inserted into the ground much as a green cutting 
is. Begonia leaves will throw out young plants from the main 
ribs when these veins or ribs are cut. Therefore, well-grown 
and firm begonia leaves are sometimes laid flat on the sand and 




THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



121 



the main veins cut; then the leaf is weighted down with pebbles 
or pegs so that these cut surfaces come into intimate contact 
with the soil beneath. The usual way, however, is to cut a 
triangular piece of the leaf (Fig. 125) and insert the tip in 
sand. So long as the cutting is alive, do not be discouraged, 
even if it do not start. 

General treatment of cuttings. 

In the growing of all greenwood and leaf-cuttings, it is well to 
remember that they should have a gentle bottom heat; the 





125. Leaf-cutting. 



Cuttings inserted in a double pot. 



soil should be such that it will hold moisture and yet not remain 
wet; the air about the tops should not become close and stag- 
nant, else the plants will damp off; and the tops should be 
shaded for a time. In order to control all the conditions, such 
cuttings are grown under cover, as in a greenhouse, coldframe, 
or a box in the residence window. 

An excellent method of starting cuttings in the living room is 
to make a double pot, as shown in Fig. 126. Inside a 6-in. 
pot set a 4-in. pot. Fill the bottom, a, with gravel or bits of 
brick, for drainage. Plug the hole in the inside pot. Fill 
the spaces between, c, with earth, and in this set the cuttings. 
Water may be poured into the inner pot, b, to supply the 
moisture. 



122 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




127. To check evaporation 
at transplanting. 



Transplanting young seedlings. 

In the transplanting of cabbages, tomatoes, flowers, and all 
plants recentfy started from seeds, it is important that the 
ground be thoroughly fined and com- 
pacted. Plants usually live better if 
transplanted into ground that has been 
freshly turned. If possible, transplant 
in cloudy or rainy weather, particularly 
if late in the season. Firm the earth 
snugly about the roots with the hands or feet, in order to bring 
up the soil moisture; but it is generally best to rake the surface 
in order to reestablish the earth-mulch, unless the plants are so 
small that their roots cannot reach through the mulch (p. 98). 

If the plants are taken from 
pots, water the pots some time 
in advance, and the ball of 
earth will fall out when the 
pot is inverted and tapped 
lightly. In taking up plants 
from the ground, it is advis- 
able, also, to water them well 
some time before removing; 
the earth may then be held 
on the roots. See that the 
watering is done far enough 
in advance to allow the water 
to settle away and distribute itself; the earth should not be 
muddy when the plants are removed. 

In order to reduce the evaporation from the plant, shingles 

may be stuck into the ground to shade the plant; or a screen 

may be improvised with pieces of paper (Fig. 12jk), tin cans, 

inverted flower-pots, coverings of brush, or other means. 

It is nearly always advisable to remove some of the foliage, 




128. 



Plants sheared and not sheared 
when transplanted. 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



123 



particularly if the plant has several leaves and if it has not been 
grown in a pot, and also if the transplanting is done in warm 
weather. Figure 128 shows a good treatment for transplanted 
plants. With the foliage all left on, the plants are likely to 
behave as in the upper row; but with most of it cut off, as in the 
lower row, there is little wilting, and new leaves soon start. 
Figure 129 also shows what part of the leaves may be cut off on 
transplanting. If the ground is freshly turned and the trans- 
planting is well done, it rarely will be necessary to water the 






D. Where to shear 


130. Trowel 


131. The dibber. 


132. Home- 


the tops of young 


dibber. 




made pad- 


plants. 






ded dibber. 



plants; but if watering is necessary, it should be done at night- 
fall, and the surface should be loosened the next morning or 
as soon as it becomes dry. 

In the transplanting of young plants, some kind of a dibber 
should be used to make the holes. Dibbers make holes without 
removing any of the earth. A good form of dibber is shown in 
Fig. 130, which is like a flat or plane trowel. Many persons pre- 
fer a cylindrical and conical dibber, like that shown in Fig. 131. 
For hard soils and larger plants, a strong dibber may be made 
from a limb that has a right-angled branch to serve as a handle. 
This handle may be softened by slipping a piece of rubber hose 
on it (Fig. 132). A long iron dibber, which may also be used as 
a crow-bar, is shown in Fig. 133. In transplanting with the 
dibber, a hole is first made by a thrust of the tool, and the earth 



124 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




133. Dibber 
and crow-bar 
combined. 

of the pot 



134. Straw- 
berry planter. 



is then pressed against the root by means of the 
foot, hand, or the dibber itself (as in Fig. 131). 
The hole is not filled by putting in dirt 
at the top. 

For large plants, a broader dibber 
may be used. An implement like 
that shown in Fig. 134 is useful for 
setting strawberries and other plants 
with large roots. It is made of two- 
inch plank, with a block on top to act 
as foot-rest and to prevent the blade from going 
too deep. In order to provide space for the foot 
and easily to direct the thrust, the handle may be 
placed at one side of the middle. For plunging 
pots, a dibber like that shown in Fig. 135 is useful, 
particularly when the soil is so hard that a long- 
pointed tool is necessary. The 
bottom of the hole may be 
filled with earth before the 
pot is inserted; but it is often 
advisable to leave the vacant 
space below (as in b) to pro- 
vide drainage, to keep the 
plant from rooting, and to 
prevent earth-worms from en- 
tering the hole in the bottom 

For smaller pots, the tool 




The plunging of 
pots. 



may be inserted a less depth (as at c). 135# 

Transplanting established plants and trees. 

In setting potted plants out of doors, it is nearly always ad- 
visable to plunge them, — that is to set the pots into the earth, — 
unless the place is very wet. The pots are then watered by 
the rainfall, and demand little care. If the plants are to be 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



125 



returned to the house in the fall, they should not be allowed to 
root through the hole in the pot, and the rooting may be pre- 
vented by turning the pot 
around every few days. Large 
decorative plants may be 
made to look as if growing 
naturally in the lawn by sink- 
ing the pot or box just below 
the surface and rolling the sod 
over it, as suggested in Fig. 
136. A space around and be- 
low the tub may be provided 
to insure drainage. 



Tub-plants. 

For the shifting of very 
large tub-plants, a box or tub 
with movable sides, as in Fig. 
137, is handy and efficient. 




136. Setting large tub-plants in the lawn. 



The plant-box recommended to 
parties who grew plants for exhibition at the World's Fair is 
shown in Fig. 138. It is made of strong boards or planks. 
At A is shown the inside of one of two 
opposite sections or sides, four feet wide 
at top, three feet wide at bottom, and 
three feet high. The cleats are two-by- 
four scantlings, through which holes are 
bored to admit the bolts with which the 
box is to be held together. B is an out- 
side view of one of the alternating sections, 
three feet four inches wide at top, two feet four inches at 
bottom, and three feet deep. A one-by-six strip is nailed 
through the center to give strength. C is an end view of A, 
showing the bolts and also a two-by-four cleat to which the 
bottom is to be nailed. This box was used mostly for trans- 




137. Plant-box with a 
movable side. 



126 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




138. Box for transporting large transplanted stock. 

porting large growing stock to the exposition, the stock having 
been dug from the open and the box secured around the ball 
of earth. 



When to transplant. 

In general, it is best to set hardy plants in the fall, particu- 
larly if the ground is fairly dry and the exposure is not too bleak. 
To this class belong most of the fruit trees and ornamental trees 
and shrubs; also hardy herbs, as columbines, peonies, lilies, 
bleeding-hearts, and the like. They should be planted as soon 
as they are thoroughly mature, so that the leaves begin to fall 
naturally. If any leaves remain on the tree or bush at planting 
time, strip them off, unless the plant is an evergreen. It is 
generally best not to cut back fall-planted trees to the full 
extent desired, but to shorten them three-fourths of the re- 
quired amount in the fall, and take off the remaining fourth in 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



127 



the spring, so that no dead or dry tips are left on the plant. 
Evergreens, as pines and spruces, are not headed-in much, 
and usually not at all. 

All tender and very small plants should be set in the spring, 
in which case very early planting is desirable ; and spring 
planting is always to be advised when the ground is not 
thoroughly drained and well prepared. 

Depth to transplant. 

In well-compacted land, trees and shrubs should be set at 
about the same depth as they stood in the nursery, but if the 
land has been deeply trenched or if it is loose from other causes, 
the plants should be set deeper, because the earth will probably 
settle. The hole should be filled with fine surface earth. It is 
generally not advisable to place manure in the hole, but if it is 
used, it should be of small amount and very thoroughly mixed 
with the earth, else it will cause the soil to dry out. In lawns 
and other places where surface tillage cannot be given, a light 
mulch of litter or manure may be placed about the plants; 
but the earth-mulch (page 98), when it can be secured, is much 
the best conserver of moisture. 

Making the rows straight. 

In order to set trees in rows, it is necessary to use a garden 
line (Fig. 96), or to mark out the ground with some of the 




139. A planting board. 



128 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



devices already described (Figs. 113-120); or in large areas, the 
place may be staked out. In planting orchards, the area is 
laid out (preferably by a surveyor) with two or more rows of 
stakes so placed that a man may sight from one fixed point to 




140. Device for placing the tree. 

another. Two or three men work to best advantage in such 

planting. 

There are various devices for locating the place of the stake 

after the stake has been removed and the hole dug, in case the 

I .. > area is not regularly staked 
k J out in such a way that sight- 
ing across the area may be 
employed. One of the sim- 
plest is shown in Fig. 139. 
It is a narrow and thin board 
with a notch in the center 
and a peg in either end, one 
of the pegs being stationary. 
The implement is so placed 
that the notch meets the 
stake, then one end of it is 

141. Lining a tree from a stake. thrown Qut Qf the way ^^ 

the hole is dug. When the implement is brought again to its 
original position, the notch marks the place of the stake and 
the tree. Figure 140 is a device with a lid, in the end of which 
is a notch to mark the place of the stake. This lid is thrown 
back, as shown by the dotted lines, when the hole is being 
dug. Figure 141 shows a method of bringing trees in row by 
measuring from a line. 




THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



129 



Cutting-back ; filling. 

In the planting of any tree or bush, the roots should be cut 
back beyond all breaks and serious bruises, and fine earth should 
be thoroughly filled in and firmed about them, as in Fig. 142. 
No implement is so good as the fingers for working the soil about 




142. Proper planting of a tree. 




143. Careless planting of a tree. 



the roots. If the tree has many roots, work it up and down 
slightly several times during the filling of the hole, to settle the 
earth in place. When the earth is thrown in carelessly, the 
roots are jammed together, and often an empty place is left 
beneath the crown, as in Fig. 143, which causes the roots to dry 
out. 

The marks on the tops of these trees in Figs. 142 and 143 show 
where the branches may be cut. See also Fig. 152. Figures 144 



130 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




144. 



Pruned young 
tree. 

Always leave 



and 145 show the tops of trees after pruning. Strong branchy 

trees, as apples, pears, and ornamental trees, are usually headed 
back in this way, upon planting. If the tree 
has one straight leader and many or several 
slender branches (Fig. 146), it is usually 
pruned, as in Fig. 147, each branch being 
cut back to one or two buds. If there are 
no branches, or very few of them, — in which 
case there will be good buds upon the main 
stem, — the leader may be cut back a third 
or half its length, to a mere whip. Ornamen- 
tal bushes with long tops are usually cut 
back a third or a half when set, as shown 
in Fig. 45. 
a little of the small 

bud-making growth. The practice of 

cutting back shade trees to mere long 

clubs, or poles, with no small twigs, 

is to be discouraged. The tree in 

such case is obliged to force out ad- 
ventitious buds from the old wood, 

and it may not have vigor enough to 

do this; and the process may be so 

long delayed as to allow the tree to be 

overtaken by drought before it gets a 

start. 

Removing very large trees. 145. Pruned young tree. 

Very large trees can often be moved with safety. It is es- 
sential that the transplanting be done when the trees are per- 
fectly dormant, — winter being preferable, — that a large mass 
of earth and roots be taken with the tree, and that the top be 
vigorously cut back. Large trees are often moved in winter 
on a stone-boat, by securing a large ball of earth frozen about 




THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



131 



the roots. This frozen ball is secured by digging about the 
tree for several days in succession, so that the freezing pro- 
gresses with the excavation. A good device for moving such 
trees is shown in Fig. 148. The trunk of the tree is securely 




\' 




146. Peach tree. 



147. Peach tree pruned for planting. 



wrapped with burlaps or other soft material, and a ring or chain 
is then secured about it. A long pole, 6, is run over the truck 
of a wagon and the end of it is secured to the chain or ring upon 
the tree. This pole is a lever for raising the tree out of the 
ground. A team is hitched at a, and a man holds the pole b. 



132 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



Other and more elaborate devices are in use, but this explains 
the idea and is therefore sufficient for the present purpose ; for 
when a person desires to remove a very large tree he should 
secure the services of an expert. 

The following more explicit directions for moving large trees 
are by Edward Hicks, who has had much experience in the 
business, and who made this report to the press a few years ago : 
"In moving large trees, say those ten to 
twelve inches in diameter and twenty-five 
to thirty feet high, it is well to prepare 
them by trimming and cutting or sawing 
off the roots at a proper distance from the 
trunks, say six to eight feet, in June. 
The cut roots heal over and send out 
fibrous roots, which should not be in- 
jured more than is necessary in moving 
the trees next fall or spring. Young, 
thrifty maples and elms, originally 
from the nursery, do not 
need such preparation 
nearly as much as other 
and older trees. In mov- 
ing a tree, we begin by 
digging a wide trench six to eight feet from it, leaving all possible 
roots fast to jt. By digging under the tree in the wide trench, and 
working the soil out of the roots by means of round or dull- 
pointed sticks, the soil falls into the cavity made under the tree. 
Three or four men in as many hours could get so much of the 
soil away from the roots that it would be safe to attach a rope 
and tackle to the upper part of the trunk and to some adjoining 
post or tree for the purpose of pulling the tree over. A good 
quantity of bagging must be put around the tree under the rope 
to prevent injury, and care should be taken that the pulling of 
the rope does not split off or break a limb. A team is hitched to 




148. Moving a large tree. 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



133 



the end of the draft rope, and slowly driven in the proper direc- 
tion to pull the tree over. If the tree does not readily tip over, 
dig under and cut off any fast root. While it is tipped over, 
work out more of the soil with the sticks. Now pass a large 
rope, double, around a few large roots close to the tree, leaving 
the ends of the rope turned up by the trunk to be used in lift- 
ing the tree at the proper time. Tip the tree in the opposite 
direction and put another large rope around the large roots 
close to the trunk; remove more soil and see that no roots are 
fast to the ground. 
Four guy-ropes at- 
tached to the upper 
parts of the tree, 
as shown in the cut 
(Fig. 149), should 
be put on properly 
and used to pre- 
vent the tree from 
tipping over too far 
as well as to keep it 
upright. A good 
deal of the soil can 149 - The tree ready to lift - 

be put back in the hole without covering the roots to get it out of 
the way of the machine. The latter can now be placed about the 
tree by removing the front part, fastened by four bolts, placing 
the frame with the hind wheels around the tree and replacing the 
front parts. Two timbers, three-by-nine inches, and twenty 
feet long, are now placed on the ground under the hind wheels, 
and in front of them, parallel to each other for the purpose of 
keeping the hind wheels up out of the big hole when drawing 
the tree away; and they are also used while backing the hind 
wheels across the new hole in which the tree is to be planted. 
The machine (Figs. 149, 150) consists of a hind axle twelve feet 
long, and broad-tired wheels. The frame is made of spruce 




134 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



^^fP! 



three-by-eight inches and twenty feet long. The braces are 
three-by-five inches and ten feet long, and upright three-by-nine 
inches and three feet high; these are bolted to the hind axle 
and main frame. The front axle has a set of blocks bolted 
together and of sufficient height to support the front end of the 
frame. Into the top timbers, three-by-six inches, hollows are 
cut at the proper distances to receive the ends of two locust 
rollers. A windlass or winch is put at each end of the frame, 

by which trees can 
easily and steadily 
be lifted and lowered, 
the large double 
ropes passing over 
the rollers to the 
windlasses. A locust 
boom is put across 
the machine under 
the frame and above 
the braces; iron pins 
hold it in place. The 
side guy-ropes are 
made fast to the ends 
of this boom. The 
other guy-ropes are made fast to the front and rear parts of the 
machine. Four rope loops are made fast inside of the frame, and 
are so placed that by passing a rope around the trunk of the tree 
and through the loops two or three times, a rope ring is made 
around the tree that will keep the trunk in the middle of the frame 
and not allow it to hit either the edges or the rollers — a very 
necessary safeguard. As the tree is slowly lifted by the wind- 
lasses, the guy-ropes are loosened, as needed. The tree will pass 
obstructions, such as trees by the roadside, but in doing so it is 
better to lean the tree backward. When the tree has arrived at 
its new place, the two timbers are placed along the opposite edges 




150. The tree ready to move. 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 135 

of the hole so that the hind wheels can be backed over it. The 
tree is then lowered to the proper depth, and made plumb by 
the guy-ropes, and good, mellow soil is thrown in and packed 
well into all the cavities under the roots. When the hole is 
half filled, several barrels of water should be poured in; this 
will wash the soil into the cavities under the center of the tree 
much better. When the water has settled away, fill in and 
pack the soil till the hole is little more than full. Leave a 
depression, so that all the rain that may fall will be retained. 
The tree should now be judiciously trimmed and the machine 
removed. Five men can take up, move, and plant a tree in a 
day, if the distance is short and the digging not too hard. The 
tree should be properly wired to stakes to prevent the wind 
from blowing it over. The front part of the machine is a part 
of our platform spring market-wagon, while the hind wheels are 
from a wood-axle wagon. A tree ten inches in diameter, with 
some dirt adhering to its roots, will weigh a ton or more." 

Winter protection of plants. 

If the ground is not ready for planting in the fall, or if it is 
desired for any reason to delay until spring, the trees or bushes 
may be heeled-in, as illus- 
trated in Fig. 151. The roots 
are laid in a furrow or trench, 
and are covered with well- 
firmed earth. Straw or - 
manure may be thrown over 

the earth still further to pro- _- ^ ^^w^f^j^^ 

tect the roots, but if it is _, _ "* \ T^T f „ . . 

' 1 # 151. Trees heeled-in for winter. 

thrown over the tops, mice 

.may be attracted by it and the trees be girdled. Tender trees 
or bushes may be lightly covered to the tips with earth. Plants 
should be heeled-in only in loose, warm, loamy or sandy ground 
and in a well-drained place. 




136 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




Fall-planted trees should generally be mounded up, sometimes 
even as high as shown in Fig. 152. This hilling holds the plant 
in position, carries off the water, prevents too deep freezing, and 
holds the earth from heaving. The mound is taken away in 
the spring. It is sometimes advisable to mound-up established 
trees in the fall, but on well-drained land the practice is usually 
not necessary. In hilling trees, pains should be taken not to 
leave deep holes, from which the earth was dug, 
close to the tree, for water collects in them. 
Roses and many other bushes may be mounded 
in the fall with profit. 

It is always advisable to mulch plants that 
are set in the fall. Any loose and dry ma- 
terial — as straw, manure, leaves, leafmold, 
litter from yards and stables, pine boughs — 
may be used for this purpose. Very strong 
or compact manures, as those in which there 
is little straw or litter, should be avoided. 
The ground may be covered to a depth of 
five or six inches, or even a foot or more if the material is loose. 
Avoid throwing strong manure directly on the crown of the 
plants, especially of herbs, for the materials that leach from 
the manure sometimes injure the crown buds and the roots. 

This protection may also be given to established plants, par- 
ticularly to those which, like roses and herbaceous plants, are 
expected to give a profusion of bloom the following year. This 
mulch affords not only winter protection, but is an efficient 
means of fertilizing the land. A large part of the plant-food 
materials have leached out of the mulch by spring, and have 
become incorporated in the soil, where the plant makes ready 
use of them. 

Mulches also serve a most useful purpose in preventing the 
ground from packing and baking by the weight of snows and 
rains, and the cementing action of too much water in the surface 



152. Tree earthed 
up for winter. 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



137 




soil. In the spring, the coarser parts of the mulch may be 
removed, and the finer parts spaded or hoed into the ground. 

Tender bushes and 
small trees may be 
wrapped with straw, 
hay, burlaps, or 
pieces of matting or 
carpet. Even rather 
large trees, as bear- 
ing peach trees, are 

Often baled Up in this 153 - Covering plants in a box. 

way, or sometimes with corn fodder, although the results in the 
protection of fruit-buds are not often very satisfactory. It is 
important that no grain is left in the baling material, else mice 
may be attracted to it. (The danger of gnawing by mice that 

nest in winter coverings is always to be 
anticipated.) It should be known, too, 
that the object in tying up or baling 
plants is not so much to protect from 
direct cold as to mitigate the effects of 
alternate freezing and thawing, and to 
protect from drying winds. Plants 
may be wrapped so thick and tight as 
to injure them. 

The labor of protecting large plants 
is often great and the results uncertain, and in most cases it 
is a question whether more satisfaction could not be attained 
by growing only hardy trees and shrubs. 

The objection to covering tender woody plants cannot be 
urged with equal force against tender herbs or very low bushes, 
for these are protected with ease. Even the ordinary mulch 
may afford sufficient protection; and if the tops kill back, the 
plant quickly renews itself from near the base, and in many 
plants — as in most hybrid perpetual roses — the best bloom is 




154. Covering plants in 
barrel. 



138 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



on these new growths of the season. Old boxes or barrels may 
be used to protect tender low plants (Figs. 153, 154). The 
box is filled with leaves or dry straw and either left open on top 
or covered with boards, boughs, or even with burlaps (Fig. 154). 
Connoisseurs of tender roses and other plants sometimes go 
to the pains of erecting a collapsible shed over the bush, and 
filling with leaves or straw. Whether this is worth while de- 




155. Laying down of trellis-grown blackberries. 



pends wholly on the degree of satisfaction that one derives 
from the growing of choice plants (see Roses, in Chap. VIII). 

The tops of plants may be laid down for the winter. Figure 
155 shows a method of laying down blackberries, as practiced in 
the Hudson River valley. The plants were tied to a trellis, as 
the method is in that country, two wires (a, b) having been run 
on either side of the row. The posts are hinged on a pivot to a 
short post (c) , and are held in position by a brace (d) . The entire 
trellis is then laid down on the approach of winter, as shown 
in the illustration. The blackberry tops are so strong that they 
hold the wires up from the ground, even when the trellis is laid 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 139 

down. To hold the wires close to the earth, stakes are thrust 
over them in a slanting position, as shown at n n. The snow 
that drifts through the plants ordinarily affords sufficient pro- 
tection for plants which are as hardy as grapes and berries. In 
fact, the species may be uninjured even without cover, since, in 
their prostrate position, they escape the cold and drying winds. 

In severe climates, or in the case of tender plants, the tops 
should be covered with straw, boughs, or litter, as recommended 
for regular mulch-covers. Sometimes a V-shaped trough made 
from two boards is placed over the stems of long or vine-like 
plants that have been laid down. All plants with slender or 
more or less pliant stems can be laid down with ease. With 
such protection, figs can be grown in the northern states. Peach 
and other fruit trees may be so trained as to be tipped over and 
covered. 

Laid-down plants are often injured if the covering remains 
too late in the spring. The ground warms up early, and may 
start the buds on parts of the buried plants, and these tender 
buds may be broken when the plants are raised, or injured by 
sun, wind, or frost. The plants should be raised while the wood 
and buds are still hard and dormant. 

• Pruning. 

Pruning is necessary to keep plants in shape, to make them 
more floriferous and fruitful, and to hold them within bounds. 

Even annual plants often may be pruned to advantage. 
This is true of tomatoes, from which the superfluous or crowd- 
ing shoots may be removed, especially if the land is so rich that 
they grow very luxuriantly; sometimes they are trained to a 
single stem and most of the side shoots are taken away as they 
appear. If plants of marigold, gaillardia, or other strong and 
spreading growers are held by stakes or wire-holders (a good 
practice), it may be advisable to remove the weak and sprawl- 
ing shoots. Balsams give better results when side shoots are 



140 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

taken off. The removing of the old flowers, which is to be 
advised with flower-garden plants (page 116), is also a species 
of pruning. 

Distinction should be made between pruning and shearing. 
Plants are sheared into given shapes. This may be necessary in 
bidding-plants, and occasionally when a formal effect is desired 
in shrubs and trees; but the best taste is displayed, in the vast 
majority of cases, in allowing the plants to assume their natural 
habits, merely keeping them shapely, cutting out old or dead 
wood, and, in some cases, preventing such crowding of shoots 
as will reduce the size of the bloom. The common practice of 
shearing shrubbery is very much to be reprehended; this sub- 
ject is discussed from another point of view on page 24. 

The pruner should know the flower-bearing habit of the plant 
that he prunes, — whether the bloom is on the shoots of last 
season or on the new wood of the present season, and whether 
the flower-buds of spring-blooming plants are separate from 
the leaf-buds. A very little careful observation will determine 
these points for any plant. (1) The spring-blooming woody 
plants usually produce their flowers from buds perfected the 
fall before and remaining dormant over winter. This is true 
of most fruit-trees, and such shrubs as lilac, forsythia, tree 
peony, wistaria, some spireas and viburnums, weigela, deutzia. 
Cutting back the shoots of these plants early in spring or late 
in fall, therefore, removes the bloom. The proper time to 
prune such plants (unless one intends to reduce or thin the 
bloom) is just after the flowering season. (2) The summer- 
blooming woody plants usually produce their flowers on shoots 
that grow early in the same season. This is true of grapes, 
quince, hybrid perpetual roses, shrubby hibiscus, crape myrtle, 
mock orange, hydrangea (paniculata), and others. Pruning in 
winter or early spring to secure strong new shoots is, therefore, 
the proper procedure in these cases. 

Remarks on pruning may be found under the discussion of 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 141 

roses and other plants in subsequent chapters, when the plants 
need any special or peculiar attention. 

Fruit-trees and shade-trees are usually pruned in winter, 
preferably late in winter, or in very early spring. However, 
there is usually no objection to moderate pruning at any time 
of the year; and moderate pruning every year, rather than vio- 
lent pruning in occasional years, is to be advised. It is an 
old idea that summer pruning tends to favor the production of 
fruit-buds and therefore to make for fruitfulness; there is un- 
doubtedly truth in this, but it must be remembered that fruit- 
fulness is not the result of one treatment or condition, but of all 
the conditions under which the plant lives. 

All limbs should be removed close to the branch or trunk 
from which they arise, and the surface of the wound should be 
practically parallel with such branch or trunk, rather than to 
be cut back to stubs. The stubs do not heal readily. 

All wounds much above an inch across may be protected by 
a coat of good linseed-oil paint; but smaller wounds, if the 
tree is vigorous, usually require no protection. The object of 
the paint is to protect the wound from cracking and decay until 
the healing tissue covers it. 

Superfluous and interfering branches should be removed from 
fruit-trees, so that the top will be fairly open to sun and to the 
pickers. Well-pruned trees allow of an even distribution and 
uniform development of the fruit. Watersprouts and suckers 
should be removed as soon as they are discovered. How open 
the top may be, will depend on the climate. In the West, open 
trees suffer from sun-scald. 

The fruit-bearing habit of the fruit-tree must be considered 
in the pruning. The pruner should be able to distinguish fruit- 
buds from leaf-buds in such species as cherries, plums, apricot, 
peach, pear, apple, and so prune as to spare these buds or to 
thin them understandingly. The fruit-buds are distinguished 
by their position on the tree and by their size and shape. They 



142 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

maybe on distinct " spurs" or short branches, in all the above 
fruits; or, as in the peach, they may be chiefly lateral on the 
new shoots (in the peach, the fruit-buds are usually two at a node 
and with a leaf -bud between them), or, as sometimes in apples 
and pears, they may be at the ends of last year's growths. 
Fruit-buds are usually thicker, or "fatter," than leaf-buds, and 
often fuzzy. Heading-back the tree of course tends to concen- 
trate the fruit-buds and to keep them nearer the center of 
the tree-top; but heading-back must be combined with in- 
telligent saving and thinning of the interior shoots. Heading- 
back of pears and peaches and plums is usually a very de- 
sirable practice. 

■ Tree surgery and protection. 

Aside from the regular pruning to develop the tree into its 
best form to enable it to do its best work, there are wounds and 
malformations to be treated. Recently, the treating of injured 
and decayed trees has received much attention, and "tree doc- 
tors" and "tree surgeons" have engaged in the business. 
If there are quacks among these people, there are also compe- 
tent and reliable men who are doing useful service in saving and 
prolonging the life of trees; one should choose a tree doctor 
with the same care that he would choose any other doctor. The 
liability of injury to street trees in the modern city and the 
increasing regard for trees, render the services of good experts 
increasingly necessary. 

Street trees are injured by many causes: as, starving because 
of poor soil and lack of water under pavements; smoke and dust; 
leakage from gas mains and from electric installation; gnawing 
by horses; butchering by persons stringing wires; carelessness 
of contractors and builders; wind and ice storms; overcrowd- 
ing; and the blundering work of persons who think that they 
know how to prune. Well-enforced municipal regulations 
should be able to control most of these troubles. 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



143 



Tree guards. 

Ale-rig roadsides and other exposed places it is often necessary 
to protect newly set trees from horses, boys, and vehicles. 
There are various kinds of tree guards for this 
purpose. The best types are those that 
are more or less open, so as to allow the 
free passage of air and which are so far re- 
moved from the body of the tree that its 
trunk may expand without difficulty. If the 
guards are very tight, they may shade the 
v-t *>. ! ii':!' trunk so much that the tree may suffer when 
the guard is removed, 
and they prevent the dis- 
covery of insects and in- 
juries. It is important 
that the guard does not fill 
with litter in which insects 
may harbor. As soon as 
the tree is old enough to 
escape injury, the guards 
should be removed. A 
very good guard, made of 
laths held together with 
three strips of band-iron, 
and secured to iron posts, 
is shown in Fig. 156. Fig- 
ure 157 shows a guard 
made by winding fencing 
wire upon three posts or 
I stakes. When there is 
likely to be danger from 
too great shading of the 
trunk, this latter form of 




156. Lath tree 
guard. 



157. Wire-arid-post 
tree guard. 



1U 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




158. 



How a horse may be hitched to a 
tree. 



guard is one of the best. 
There are good forms of 
tree guards on the market. 
Of course hitching-posts 
should be provided, wher- 
ever horses are to stand, to 
remove the temptation of 
hitching to trees. Figure 
158, however, shows a very- 
good device when a hitching 
post is not wanted. A 
strong stick, four or five 
feet long, is secured to the 
tree by a staple and at the 
lower end of the stick is a 
short chain with a snap in the end. The snap is secured to 
the bridle, and the horse is not able to reach the tree. 

Mice and rabbits. 

Trees and bushes are often seriously injured by the gnawing 
of mice and rabbits. The best preventive is not to have the 
vermin. If there are no places in which rabbits and mice can 
burrow and breed, there will be little difficulty. At the approach 
of winter, if mice are feared, the dry litter should be "removed 
from about the trees, or it should be packed down very firm, so 
that the mice cannot nest in it. If the rodents are very abun- 
dant, it may be advisable to wrap fine wire netting about the 
base of the tree. A boy who is fond of trapping or hunting will 
ordinarily solve the rabbit difficulty. Rags tied on sticks 
which are placed at intervals about the plantation will often 
frighten rabbits away. 

Girdled trees. 

Trees that are girdled by mice should be wrapped up as soon 
as discovered, so that the wood shall not become too dry. When 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



145 



warm weather approaches, shave off the edges of the girdle so 
that the healing tissue may grow freely, smear the whole sur- 
face with grafting-wax, or with clay, and bind the whole wound 
with strong cloths. Even though the tree is completely girdled 
for a distance of three or four inches, it usually 
may be saved by this treatment, unless the 
injury extends into the wood. The water from 
the roots rises through the soft wood and not 
between the bark and the wood, as commonly 
supposed. When this sap water has reached 
the foliage, it takes part in the elaboration of 
plant-food, and this food is distributed through- 
out the plant, the path of transfer being in the 
inner layers of bark. This food material, being 
distributed back to the girdle, will generally heal 
over the wound if the wood is not allowed to 
become dry. 

In some cases, however, it is necessary to join 
the bark above and below the girdle by means 
of cions, which are whittled to a wedge-shape on either end, 
and inserted underneath the two edges of the bark (Fig. 
159). The ends of the cions and the edges of the wound are 
held by a bandage of cloth, and the whole work is protected 
by melted grafting-wax poured upon it. 1 




159. Bridge-graft- 
ing a girdle. 



Repairing street trees. 

The following advice on "tree surgery " is by A. D. Taylor 
(Bulletin 256, Cornell University, from which the accompany- 
ing illustrations are adapted) : — 



1 A good grafting-wax is made as follows: Into a kettle place one part by 
weight of tallow, two parts of beeswax, four parts of rosin. When completely 
melted, pour into a tub or pail of cold water, then work it with the hands 
(which should be greased) until it develops a grain and becomes the color of 
taffy candy. The whole question of the propagation of plants is discussed in 
" The Nurserv-Book." 



146 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




li 



®n\ 






"Tree surgery includes the intelligent protection of all me- 
chanical injuries and cavities. Pruning requires a previous in- 
timate knowledge of the habits of growth of trees; surgery, on 
the other hand, requires in addition a knowledge of the best 
methods for making cavities air-tight and preventing decay. 
The filling of cavities in trees has not been practiced sufficiently 
long to warrant making a definite statement as to the per- 
manent success or failure of the operation; the work is still in 

an experimental stage. The car- 
ing for cavities in trees must be 
urged as the only means of pre- 
serving affected specimens, and 
the preservation of many noble 
specimens has been at least tem- 
porarily assured through the 
efforts of those practicing this 
kind of work. 

11 Successful operation de- 
pends on two important fac- 
tors: first, that all decayed 
parts of the cavity be wholly removed and the exposed sur- 
face thoroughly washed with an antiseptic; second, that the 
cavity, when filled, must be air tight and hermetically sealed 
if possible. Trees are treated as follows: The cavity is 
thoroughly cleaned by removing all decayed wood and wash- 
ing the interior surface with a solution of copper sulfate and 
lime, in order to destroy any fungi that may remain. The 
edges of the cavity are cut smooth in order to allow free growth 
of the cambium after the cavity is filled. Any antiseptic, such 
as corrosive sublimate, creosote, or even paint, may answer the 
purpose; creosote, however, possesses the most penetrating 
powers of any. The method of filling the cavities depends to a 
great extent on their size and form. Very large cavities with 
great openings are generally bricked on the outside, over the 



160. 



A cement-filled cavity at the 
base of a tree. , 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



147 






I 



opening, and filled on the inside with concrete, the brick serving 
the purpose of a retaining wall to hold the concrete in place. 
Concrete used for the main filling is usually 
made in the proportion of one part good 
Portland cement, two parts sand, and four 
parts crushed stone, the consistency of the 
mixture being such that it may be poured 
into the cavity and require little or no tamp- 
ing to make the mass solid. (Fig. 160.) 

" Fillings thus made are considered by 
expert tree surgeons to be a permanent pre- 
ventive of decay. The outside of the filling 
is always coated with a thin covering of 
concrete, consisting of one part cement to 
two parts fine sand. Cavities resulting from 
freezing, and which, though large on the in- 
side, show only a long narrow crack on the 
outside, are most easily filled by placing a 
form against the entire length of the opening, 
having a space at the top through which the 
cement may be poured (Fig. 161). Another 
method of retaining the concrete is to re- 
inforce it from the outside by driving rows 
of spikes along the inner surface of either 
side of the cavity and lacing a stout wire 
across the face of the cavity. For best re- 
sults, all fillings must come flush with the 
inner bark when finished. During the first 
year, this growing tissue will spread over the 
outer edge of the filling, thus forming an her- 
metically sealed cavity. In the course of 
time, the outside of small or narrow openings 
should be completely covered with tissue, 
which buries the filling from view. 



:**:. 



161. A wound, made 
by freezing, trimmed 
out and filled with 
cement. 



148 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




162. Bridge-grafting or in- 
arching from saplings 
planted about the tree. 




p~- 'mm 



"It has been found that there is a tendency for portland ce- 
ment to contract from the wood after it dries, leaving a space 
between the wood and the cement through which water and 
germs of decay may enter. A remedy 
for this defect has been suggested in 
the use of a thick coat of tar, or an 
elastic cement which might be spread 
over the surface of the 
cavity before filling. 
The cracking of port- 
land cement on the 
surface of long cavities 
is caused by the sway- 
ing of trees during 
heavy storms, and 
should not occur if the filling is correctly done. 
"In addition to the preservation of decayed 
specimens by filling the cavities, as above out- 
lined, it has been proposed to strengthen the 
tree by treating it as shown in Fig. 162. Young 
saplings of the same species, after having be- 
come established as shown, are grafted by ap- 
proach to the mature specimen. 

"Injury frequently results from error in the 
method of attempting to save broken, or to 
strengthen and support weak branches that 
are otherwise healthy. The means used for 
supporting cracked, wind-racked, and over- 
laden branches which show a tendency to split 
at the forks are bolting and chaining. The 
practice of placing iron bands around large branches in order 
to protect them has resulted in much harm; as the tree grows and 
expands, such bands tighten, causing the bark to be broken and 
resulting after a few years in a partial girdling (Fig. 163). 



163. Faulty meth- 
ods of bracing 
a crotched tree. 
The lower meth- 
od is wholly 
wrong. The up- 
per method is 
good if the bolt- 
heads are prop- 
erly counter- 
sunk and the 
bolts tightly 
fitted ; but if the 
distance be- 
tween the 
branches is 
great, it is bet- 
ter to have two 
bolts and join 
them by hooks, 
to allow of wind 
movements. 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



149 



"To bolt a tree correctly is comparatively inexpensive. The 
safest method consists in passing a strong bolt through a 

hole bored in the branch for this 
purpose, and fastening it on the 



i 1 


wnn \ 

km \,i 


m, 


U 


[//// wMl^fr 




Jvffiffl' 


WmM^^^y 




IP* 


"^v^w^Wl 


m : \ 


mpH 


ppppi 


^1 


1 "--"- 

M-B- 




164. 



Trees ruined to allow of the 
passage of wires. 



165. 



Accommodating a wall to a valuable 
tree. 



outside by means of a washer and a nut. Generally the washer 
has been placed against the bark and the nut then holds it 
in place. A better method of bolting, and 
one which insures a neat ap- 
pearance of the branch in ad- 
dition to serving as the most 
certain safeguard against the 
entrance of disease, is to coun- 
ter-sink the nut in the bark and 
imbed it in portland cement. 
The hole for the sinking of 
the nut and washer is thickly coated with lead paint and then 
with a layer of cement, on which are placed the nut and washer, 
both of which are then imbedded in cement. If the outer 





166. The death of a 
long stub. 



167. Bunglin< 
pruning. 



150 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



surface of the nut be flush with the plane of the bark, within a 
few years it will be covered by the growing tissue. 

"The inner ends of the rods in the two 

branches may be connected by a rod or chain. 

The preference for the chain 

over the rod attachment is 

based on the compressive 

and tensile stresses which 
168. The proper come on the connection dur- 
way to saw off mg wm( j storms. Rod con- . 




a, large limb. 

A cut is first nections are preferred, now- 
made on the ever, when rigidity is required, 
as in unions made close to 
the crotch; but for tying two 



under side to 
prevent split- 
ting down; 

on en t he up C P er branches together before 
they have shown signs of 




side. Then 

the entire 

; stub " is re- 



169. A weak-bodied 
young tree well 
supported ; pad- 
ding is placed un- 
der the bandages. 



weakening at the fork, the 

moved close to chain may best be used, as 

the trunk. ^ point of attachment may 

be placed some distance from the crotch, where the flexibility 
factor will be important and the strain comparatively small. 
Elms in an advanced stage of maturity, if subjected to severe 
climatic conditions, often show this tendency to split. These 




v//'r yy 

170. The wrong way 
of attaching a guy 
rope. 





171. An allowable 
way of attach- 
ing a guy rope. 



172. The best way 
of attaching a 
guy rope, if a tree 
must be used as 
support. 




%° 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



151 



trees, especially, 
should be carefully 
inspected and 
means taken to pre- 
serve them, by bolt- 
ing if necessary." 

The illustrations, 
Figs. 164-173, are 
self-explanatory, 
and show poor 




173. A method of saving valuable trees along streets 
on which heavy lowering of grade has been made. 

practice and good practice in the care of trees. 



The grafting of plants. 

Grafting is the operation of inserting a piece of a plant into 
another plant with the intention that it shall grow. It differs 
from the making of cuttings in the fact that the severed part 
grows in another plant rather than in the soil. 

There are two general kinds of grafting — one of which 
inserts a piece of branch in the stock (grafting proper), and 
one which inserts only a bud with little or no wood attached 
(budding). In both cases the success of the operation depends 
on the growing together of the cambium of the cion (or cutting) 
and that of the stock. The cambium is the new and growing 
tissue lying underneath the bark and on the outside of the 
growing wood. Therefore, the line of demarcation between 
the bark and the wood should coincide when the cion and 
stock are joined. 

The plant on which the severed piece is set is called the stock. 
The part which is removed and set into the stock is called a 
cion if it is a piece of a branch, or a "bud" if it is only a single 
bud with a bit of tissue attached. 

The greater part of grafting and budding is performed when 
the cion or bud is nearly or quite dormant. That is, grafting 
is usually done late in winter and early in spring, and budding 



152 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



may be performed then, or late in summer, when the buds have 

nearly or quite matured. 

The chief object of grafting is to perpetuate 
a kind of plant which will not reproduce itself 
from seed, or of which seed is very difficult to 
obtain. Cions or buds are therefore taken from 
this plant and set into whatever kind of plant 
is obtainable on which they will grow. Thus, 
if one wants to propagate the Baldwin apple, he 
does not for that purpose sow seeds thereof, but 
takes cions or buds from a Baldwin tree and 
grafts them into some other apple tree. The 
stocks are usually obtained from seeds. In the 
case of the apple, young plants are raised from 
seeds which are secured mostly from cider fac- 
tories, without reference to the variety from 
which they came. When the seedlings have 
grown to a certain age, they are budded or 
grafted, the grafted part making the entire top 
of the tree; and the top bears fruit like that of 
the tree from which the cions were taken. 

There are many ways in which the union be- 
tween cion and stock is made. Budding may 
be first discussed. It consists in inserting a 
bud underneath the bark of the stock, and the 
commonest practice is that which is shown in 
the illustrations. Budding is mostly performed 
in July, August, and early September, when the 
bark is still loose or in condition to peel. Twigs 
are cut from the tree which it is desired to prop- 

174 Budding agate, and the buds are cut off with a sharp 
The "bud"; knife, a shield-shaped bit of bark (with possibly 

torecX^ a little wood ) bein § l^t with them (Fig. 174). 
the bud tied! The bud is then shoved into a slit made in the 







THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 153 

stock, and it is held in place by tying with a soft strand. In two 
or three weeks the bud will have " stuck" (that is, it will have 
grown fast to the stock), and the strand is cut to prevent its 
strangling the stock. Ordinarily the bud does not grow until 
the following spring, at which time the entire stock or branch 
in which the bud is inserted is cut off an inch above the bud; 
and the bud thereby receives all the energy of the stock. Bud- 
ding is the commonest grafting operation in nurseries. Seeds 
of peaches may be sown in spring, and the plants which result 
will be ready for budding that same August. The 
following spring, or a year from the planting of the 
seed, the stock is cut off just above the bud (which 
is inserted near the ground), and in the fall of that 
year the tree is ready for sale; that is, the top is one 
season old and the root is two seasons old, but in the 
trade it is known as a one-year-old tree. In the 
South, the peach stock may be budded in June or 
early July of the year in which the seed is planted, 
and the bud grows into a saleable tree the same 
year: this is known as June budding. In apples 175 ^hip- 
and pears the stock is usually two years old before graft. 
it is budded, and the tree is not sold until the top has grown 
two or three years. Budding may be performed also in the 
spring, in which case the bud will grow the same season. 
Budding is always done on young growths, preferably on those 
not more than one year old. 

Grafting is the insertion of a small branch (or cion), usually 
bearing more than one bud. If grafting is employed on small 
stocks, it is customary to employ the whip-graft (Fig. 175). 
Both stock and cion are cut across diagonally, and a split made 
in each, so that one fits into the other. The graft is tied securely 
with a string, and then, if it is above ground, it is also waxed 
carefully. 

In larger limbs or stocks, the common method is to employ 



154 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



the cleft-graft (Fig. 176). This consists in cutting off the 
stock, splitting it, and inserting a wedge-shaped cion in one or 
both sides of the split, taking care that the cambium layer of 
the cion matches that of the stock. The exposed surfaces are 
then securely covered with wax. 

Grafting is usually performed early in the spring, just before 
the buds swell. The cions should have been cut before this 
time, when they were perfectly dormant. Cions may be stored 
in sand in the cellar or in the ice-house, or they 
may be buried in the field. The object is to 
keep them fresh and dormant until they are 
wanted. 

If it is desired to change the top of an old plum, 
apple, or pear tree to some other variety, it is 
usually accomplished by means of the cleft-graft. 
If the tree is very young, budding or whip-graft- 
ing may be employed. On an old top the cions 
should begin to bear when three to four years old. 
All the main limbs should be grafted. It is im- 
portant to keep down the suckers or watersprouts 
from around the grafts, and part of the remaining 
top should be cut away each year until the top is entirely 
changed over (which will result in two to four years). 

A good wax for covering the exposed parts is described in 
the footnote on page 145. 

Keeping records of the plantation. 

If one has a large and valuable collection of fruit or orna- 
mental plants, it is desirable that he have some permanent 
record of them. The most satisfactory method is to label the 
plants, and then to make a chart or map on which the various 
plants are indicated in their proper positions. The labels are 
always liable to be lost and to become illegible, and they are 
often misplaced by careless workmen or mischievous boys. 




176. Cleft-graft 
before wax- 
ing. 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



155 



7 



^ 



c *nc. 



177. The common 
stake label. 



For vegetables, annuals, and other temporary plants, the best 
labels are simple stakes, like that shown in Fig. 177. Garden 
stakes a foot long, an inch wide, and three-eighths inch thick 
may be bought of label manufacturers for 
three to five dollars a thousand. These take 
a soft pencil very readily, and if the labels are 
taken up in the fall and stored in a dry place, 
they will last two or three years. 

For more permanent herbaceous plants, as 
rhubarb and asparagus, or even for bushes, a 
stake that is sawed from clear pine or cypress, 
eighteen inches long, three inches wide, and an 
inch or more thick, affords a most excellent 
label. The lower end of the stake is sawed to 
a point, and is dipped in coal tar or creosote, 
or other preservative. The top of the stake is painted white, 
and the legend is written with a large and soft pencil. When 
the writing becomes illegible or the stake is needed for other 
plants, a shaving is taken off the face of the 
label with a plane, a fresh coat of paint added, 
and the label is as good as ever. These labels 
are strong enough to withstand shocks from 
whiffletrees and tools, and should last ten 
years. 

Whenever a legend is written with a lead 
pencil, it is advisable to use the pencil when 
the paint (which should be white lead) is still 
fresh or soft. Figure 178 shows a very good device for preserv- 
ing -the writing on the face of the label. A block of wood is 
secured to the label by means of a screw, covering the legend 
completely and protecting it from the weather. 

If more ornamental stake labels are desired, various types can 
be bought in the market, or one can be made after the fashion 
of Fig. 179. This is a zinc plate that can be painted black, on 




178. A good stake 
label, with the leg- 
end covered. 



156 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



which the name is written with white paint. Many persons, 
however, prefer to paint the zinc white, and write or stamp the 
label with black ink or black type. Two strong wire legs are 
soldered to the label, and these prevent it from turning around. 
These labels are, of course, much more' expensive than the 
ordinary stake labels, and are usually not so satisfactory, al- 
though more attractive. 

For labeling trees, various kinds of zinc tallies are in common 

use, as shown in Figs. 180 and 181. Fresh zinc takes a lead pencil 

readily, and the writing often becomes more 

legible as it becomes older, and it will usually 





179. Metal stake 
label. 



bed 

180. Zinc tallies. 



Ve 




181. Common zinc 
tally. 



remain three or four years. These labels are attached either by 
wires, as a, b, Fig. 180, or they are wound about the limb as 
shown in c, d, and e, in Fig. 180. The type of zinc label most in 
use is a simple strip of zinc, as shown in Fig. 181, wrapped about 
the limb. The metal is so flexible that it expands readily with 
the growth of the branch. While these zinc labels are durable, 
they are very inconspicuous because of their neutral color, and 
it is often difficult to find them in dense masses of foliage. 

The common wooden label of the nurserymen (Fig. 182) is 
perhaps as useful as any for general purposes. If the label has 
had a light coat of thin white lead, and the legend has been made 



I 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



157 



with a soft lead pencil, the writing should remain legible four or 
five years. Fig. 183 shows another type of label that is more 
durable, since the wire is stiff and large, and is 
secured around the limb by means of pincers. 
The large loop allows the 
limb to expand, and the 
stiff wire prevents the 
misplacing of the label 
by winds and workmen. 
The tally itself is what 
is known as the " pack- 
age label " of the nursery- 
men, being six inches 
long, one and one-fourth 
inches wide, and costing 
(painted) less than one 
and one-half dollars a 
thousand. The legend is made with a 
lead pencil when the paint is fresh, 

and sometimes the label is dipped in 
thin white lead after the writing is 
made, so that the paint covers the 
writing with a very thin protecting 
coat. A similar label is shown in Fig. 
184, which has a large wire loop, with 
a coil, to allow the expansion of the limb. 

The tallies of this type are often made of glass, or porcelain 
with the name indelibly printed in X 



182. A common 
nursery label. 




Cornell tree label. 




184. Serviceable large-loop 
tree label. 



"SjJnvS_\A<\u&cJ 



185. Zinc tree label. 



them. Figure 185 shows a zinc tally, 

which is secured to the tree by means 

of a sharp and pointed wire driven into 

the wood. Some prefer to have two arms to this wire, driving 

one point on either side of the tree. If galvanized wire is 

used, these labels will last for many years. 



158 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




It is very important, when adjusting labels to trees, to be sure 
that the wire is not twisted tight against the wood. Figure 186 
shows the injury that is likely to result from 
label wires. When a tree is constricted or 
girdled, it is very liable to be broken off by 
winds. It should be a rule to attach the label 
to a limb of minor importance, so that if the 
wire should injure the part, the loss will not be 
serious. When the label, Fig. 182, is applied, 
only the tips of the wire should be twisted 
together, leaving a large loop for the expansion 

tight label wire. of the limb. 

The storing of fruits and vegetables. 

The principles involved in the storing of perishable products, 
as fruits and vegetables, differ with the different commodities. 
All the root-crops, and most 
fruits, need to be kept in a 
cool, moist, and uniform tem- 
perature if they are to be pre- 
served a great length of time. 
Squashes, sweet-potatoes, and 
some other things need to be 
kept in an intermediate and 
what might be called a high 
temperature; and the atmosphere should be drier than for most 
other products. The low temperature has the effect of arresting 
decomposition and the work of fungi and bacteria. The moist 
atmosphere has the effect of preventing too great evaporation 
and the consequent shriveling. 

In the storing of any commodit}^, it is very important that 
the product is in proper condition for keeping. Discard all 
specimens that 'are bruised or are likely to decay. Much of 
the decay of fruits and vegetables in storage is not the fault of 




187. The old-fashioned "outdoor 
cellar," still a very useful and con- 
venient storage place. 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



159 



the storage process, but is really the work of diseases with which 
the materials are infected before they are put into storage. 
For example, if potatoes and cabbages are affected with the 
rot, it is practically impossible to keep them any length of time. 

Apples, winter pears, and all roots, should be kept at a tem- 
perature somewhat near the freezing point. It should not 
rise above 40° F. for best results. Apples can be kept 
even at one or two degrees below the freezing point if the tem- 
perature is uniform. Cellars in which there are heaters are 
likely to be too dry and 
the temperature too high. ^ 

In such places it is well IBk * v ~ ' ' 1* y *^V' 

to keep fresh vegetables 
and fruits in tight re- 
ceptacles, and pack the 
roots in sand or moss in 
order to prevent shrivel- 
ing. In these places, 
apples usually keep better 
if headed up in barrels 
than if kept on racks or 
shelves. In moist and cool cellars, however, it is preferable for 
the home supply to place them on shelves, not piling them more 
than five or six inches deep, for then they can be sorted over as 
occasion requires. In case of fruits, be sure that the specimens 
are not over-ripe when placed in storage. If apples are allowed 
to lie in the sun for a few days before being packed, they will 
ripen so much that it is very difficult to keep them. 

Cabbages should be kept at a low and uniform temperature, 
and water should be drained away from them. They are 
stored in many ways in the field, but success depends so much 
on the season, particular variety, ripeness, and the freedom 
from injuries by fungi and insects, that uniform results are 
rarely secured by any one method. The best results are to be 




188. Lean-to fruit cellar, covered with earth. 
The roof should be of cement or stone 
slabs. Provide a ventilator. 



160 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



expected when they can be kept in a house built for the purpose, 
in which the temperature is uniform and the air fairly moist. 
When stored out of doors, they are likely to freeze and thaw 
alternately; and if the water runs into the heads, mischief 
results. Sometimes they are easily stored by being piled into 
a conical heap on well-drained soil and covered with dry straw, 



SAWDUST 




189. A fruit storage house cooled by ice. 



and the straw covered with boards. It does not matter if 
they are frosted, provided they do not thaw out frequently. 
Sometimes cabbages are laid head down in a shallow furrow 
plowed in well-drained land, and over them is thrown straw, 
the stumps being allowed to project through the cover. It is 
only in winters of rather uniform temperature that good results 
are to be expected from such methods. These are some of the 
main considerations involved in the storing of such things as 
cabbage; the subject is mentioned again in the discussion of 
cabbage in Chapter X. 






THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 161 

In, the storing of all products, especially those which have 
soft and green matter, as cabbages, it is well to provide against 
the heating of the produce. If the things are buried out of 
doors, it is important to put on a very light cover at first so 
that the heat may escape. Cover them gradually as the cold 
weather comes on. This is important with all vegetables that 
are placed in pits, as potatoes, beets, and the like. If covered 
deeply at once, they are likely to heat and rot. All pits made 
out of doors should be on well-drained and preferably sandy 
land. 

When vegetables are wanted at intervals during the winter 
from pits, it is well to make compartment pits, each compart- 
ment holding a wagon load or whatever quantity will be likely 
to be wanted at each time. These pits are sunk in well-drained 
land, and between each of the two pits is left a wall of earth 
about a foot thick. One pit can then be emptied in cold weather 
without interfering with the others. 

An outside cellar is better than a house cellar in which there 
is a heater, but it is not so handy. If it is near the house, it 
need not be inconvenient, however. A house is usually healthier 
if the cellar is not used for storage. House cellars used for 
storage should have a ventilating shaft. 

Some of the principles involved in an ice-cooled storage house 
are explained in the diagram, Fig. 189. If the reader desires 
to make a careful study of storage and storage structures, 
he should consult cyclopedias and special articles. 

The forcing of plants. 

There are three general means (aside from greenhouses) of 
forcing plants ahead of their season in the early spring — by 
means of forcing-hills and hand-boxes, by coldframes, and by 
hotbeds. 

The forcing-hill is an arrangement by means of which a single 
plant or a single "hill" of plants may be forced where it per- 



162 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



manently stands. This type of forcing may be applied to per- 
ennial plants, as rhubarb and asparagus, or to annuals, as melons 
and cucumbers. 

In Fig. 190 is illustrated a common method of hastening the 
growth of rhubarb in the spring. A box with four removable 
sides, two of which are shown in end section 
in the figure, is placed around the plant in 
the fall. The inside of the box is filled 
with straw or litter, and the outside is 
banked thoroughly with any refuse, to pre- 
vent the ground from freezing. When it is 
desired to start the plants, the covering is 
removed from both the inside and outside 
of the box and hot manure is piled around 
If the weather is yet cold, dry light leaves 
or straw may be placed inside the box; or a pane or sash of 
glass may be placed on top of the box, when it will become 
a coldframe. Rhubarb, asparagus, sea-kale, and similar plants 
may be advanced two or four weeks by means of this method 




190. 



Forcing-hill for 
rhubarb. 



the box to its top. 




191. Forcing-hill, and the mold or frame for making it. 



of forcing. Some gardeners use old barrels or half-barrels in 
place of the box. The box, however, is better and handier, 
and the sides can be stored for future use. 

Plants that require a long season in which to mature, and 
which do not transplant readily, as melons and cucumbers, may 
be planted in forcing-hills in the field. One of these hills is 
shown in Fig. 191. The frame or mold is shown at the left. 
This mold is a box with flaring sides and no top or bottom, and 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 163 

provided with a handle. This frame is placed with the small 
end down at the point where the seeds are to be planted, and 
the earth is hilled up about it and firmly packed with the feet. 
The mold is then withdrawn, and a pane of glass is laid upon the 
top of the mound to concentrate the sun's rays, and to prevent 
the bank from washing down with the rains. A clod of earth 
or a stone may be placed upon the pane to hold it down. 
Sometimes a brick is used as a mold. This type of forcing-hill 
is not much used, because the bank of earth is liable to be washed 
away, and heavy rain coming when the glass is off will fill the 
hill with water and drown the plant. However, it can be used 
to very good advantage when the gar- 
dener can give it close attention. 

A forcing-hill is sometimes made by 
digging a hole in the ground and plant- 
ing the seeds in the bottom of it, plac- 
ing the pane of glass upon a slight ridge 
or mound which is made on the sur- 192 - Hand - box - 

face of the ground. This method is less desirable than the 
other, because the seeds are placed in the poorest and coldest 
soil, and the hole is very likely to fill with water in the early 
days of spring. 

An excellent type of forcing-hill is made by the use of the 
hand-box, as shown in Fig. 192. This is a rectangular box, 
without top or bottom, and a pane of glass is slipped into a groove 
at the top. It is really a miniature coldframe. The earth is 
banked up slightly about the box, in order to hold it against 
winds and to prevent the water from running into it. If these 
boxes are made of good lumber and painted, they will last for 
many years. Any size of glass may be used which is desired, 
but a ten-by-twelve pane is as good as any for general purposes. 

After the plants are thoroughly established in these forcing- 
hills, and the weather is settled, the protection is wholly removed, 
and the plants grow normally in the open. 





164 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

A very good temporary protection may be given to tender 
plants by using four panes of glass, as explained in Fig. 193, the 
two inner panes being held together at the top by a block of 
wood through which four nails are driven. Plants are more 
likely to burn in these glass frames than in the hand-boxes, and 
such frames are not so well adapted to the protection of plants 
in very early spring; but they are often 
useful for special purposes. 

In all forcing-hills, as in coldframes and 
hotbeds, it is exceedingly important that 
the plants receive plenty of air on bright 
days. Plants that are kept too close be- 

193. Glass forcing-hill. J f\ ... 

come weak or drawn, and lose the ability 
to withstand changes of weather when the protection is re- 
moved. Even though the wind is cold and raw, the plants 
inside the frames ordinarily will not suffer if the glass is 
taken off when the sun is shining. 

Coldframes. 

A coldframe is nothing more than an enlarged hand-box; 
that is, instead of protecting but a single plant or a single hill 
with a single pane of glass, the frame is covered with sash, and 
is large enough to accommodate many plants. 

There are three general purposes for which a coldframe is 
used: For the starting of plants early in spring; for receiving 
partially hardened plants that have been started earlier in 
hotbeds and forcing-houses; for wintering young cabbages, 
lettuce, and other hardy plants that are sown in the fall. 

Coldframes are ordinarily placed near the buildings, and the 
plants are transplanted into the field when settled weather 
comes. Sometimes, however, they are made directly in the 
field where the plants are to remain, and the frames, and not 
the plants, are removed. When used for this latter purpose, 
the frames are made very cheap by running two rows of parallel 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



165 




planks through the field at a distance apart of six feet. The 
plank on the north is ordinarily ten to twelve inches wide, and 
that on the south eight to ten inches. These planks are held 
place by stakes, and the sashes are laid across 
mi. Seeds of radishes, beets, lettuce, and the 
e, are then sown beneath the sash, and when 
settled weather arrives, the sash and planks are 
removed and the plants are growing naturally 
in the field. Half-hardy plants, as those 
mentioned, may be started fully two or 
three weeks in advance of the 
normal season by this means. 

One of the simplest types of 
coldframes is shown in Fig. 194, 
which is a lean-to against the 
foundation of a house. A sill is 
run just above the surface of the 
ground, and the sashes, shown at 
D, are laid on rafters which run from this sill to the sill of the 
house, A. If this frame is on the south side of the building, 
plants may be started even as 
early as a month before the open- 
ing of the season. Such lean-to 
frames are sometimes made against 
greenhouses or warm cellars, and 
heat is supplied to them by the 
opening of a door in the wall, as 
at B. In frames that are in such 
sunny positions as these, it is ex- 
ceedingly important that care be 
taken to remove the sash, or at least to give ample ventilation, 
in all sunny days. 

A different type of lean-to structure is shown in Fig. 195. 
This may be either a temporary or permanent building, and 



194. Coldframe against 
a building. Plants 
at E ; sill of house at 
A; basement open- 
ing at B. 




195. Weather screen, or cold- 
frame, against a building. 



166 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



it is generally used 
for the protection 
of half-hardy plants 
that are grown in 
pots and tubs. It 
may be used, how- 
ever, for the pur- 
pose of forwarding 
pot-plants early in 
the spring and for 
the protection of 
peaches, grapes, 
oranges, or other fruits in tubs or boxes. If it is desired 
merely to protect the plants through the winter, it is best 




196. A pit or coldframe on permanent walls, and a 
useful adjunct to a garden. The rear cover is 
open (a). 




197. The usual form of coJdframe. 

to have the structure on the north side of the building, in 
order that the sun may not force the plants into activity. 

Another structure that may be used both to carry half-hardy 
plants over winter and 
for starting plants early 
in spring is shown in Fig. 
196. It is really a mini- 
ature greenhouse without 
heat. It is well adapted 

for mild Climates. The 198. A strong and durable frame.' 




THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



167 



picture was made from a structure in the coast region of North 
Carolina. 

The common type of coldframe is shown in Fig. 197. It is 




199. A frame yard. 

twelve feet long and six feet wide, and is covered, with four 

three-by-six sash. It is made of ordinary lumber loosely nailed 

together. If one expects to use coldframes or hotbeds every 

year, however, it is advisable to 

make the frames of two-inch stuff, 

well painted, and to join the parts 

by bolts and tenons, so that they 

may be taken apart and stored 

until needed for the next year's 

crop. Figure 198 suggests a 

method of making frames so that 

they may be taken apart. 

It is always advisable to place coldframes and hotbeds in a pro- 
tected place, and particularly to protect them from cold north 
winds. Buildings afford excellent protection, but the sun is 




200. Portable coldframe. 



168 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




201. A larger portable coldframe. 



sometimes too hot on the 
south side of large and 
light-colored buildings. 
One of the best means 
of protection is to plant 
a hedge of evergreens, as 
shown in Fig. 199. It is 
always desirable, also, to 




place all the coldframes and hotbeds close together, for the 
purpose of economizing time and labor. A regular area or 
yard may be set aside 
for this purpose. 

Various small and 
portable coldframes 
may be used about the 

garden for the protec- •-,- . \ y- ■ -•- n • ^^ — ■ .,-> 
tion of tender plants or 

to Start them early in 202 - A commodious portable frame. 

the spring. Pansies, daisies, and border carnations, for ex- 
ample, may be brought on very early by setting such frames 

over them or by plant- 
ing them under the 
frames in the fall. These 
frames may be of any 
size desired, and the sash 
may be either removable, or, in case of small frames, they may 
be hinged at the top. Figs. 200-203 illustrate various types. 

Hotbeds. 

A hotbed differs from a coldframe in being provided with 
bottom heat. This heat is ordinarily supplied by means of 
fermenting manure, but it may be obtained from other ferment- 
ing material, as tanbark or leaves, or from artificial heat, as 
flues, steam pipes, or water pipes. 




203. A low coldframe. 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 169 

The hotbed is used for the very early starting of plants; 
and when the plants have outgrown the bed, or have become 
too thick, they are transplanted into cooler hotbeds or into 
coldframes. There are some crops, however, that are car- 
ried to full maturity in the hotbed itself, as radishes and 
lettuce. 

The date at which the hotbed may be started with safety 
depends almost entirely on the means at command of heating 
it and on the skill of the operator. In the northern states, 
where outdoor gardening does not begin until the first or the 
last of May, hotbeds are sometimes started as early as January; 
but they are ordinarily delayed until early in March. 

The heat for hotbeds is commonly supplied by the fermenta- 
tion of horse manure. It is important that the manure be as 
uniform as possible in composition and texture, that it come 
from highly fed horses, and is practically of the same age. The 
best results are usually secured with manure from livery 
stables, from which it can be obtained in large quantities in a 
short space of time. Perhaps as much as one half of the whole 
material should be of litter or straw that has been used in the 
bedding. 

The manure is placed in a long and shallow square-topped pile, 
not more than four or six feet high, as a rule, and is then allowed 
to ferment. Better results are generally obtained if the manure 
is piled under cover. If the weather is cold and fermentation 
does not start readily, wetting the pile with hot water may 
start it. The first fermentation is nearly always irregular; 
that is, it begins unequally in several places in the pile. In order 
to make the fermentation uniform, the pile must be turned oc- 
casionally, taking care to break up all hard lumps and to dis- 
tribute the hot manure throughout the mass. It is sometimes 
necessary to turn the pile five or six times before it is finally 
used, although half this number of turnings is ordinarily suffi- 
cient. When the pile is steaming uniformly throughout, it is 



170 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

placed in the hotbed, and is covered with the earth in which 
the plants are to be grown. 

Hotbed frames are sometimes set on top of the pile of fer- 
menting manure, as shown in Fig. 204. The manure should 
extend some distance beyond the edges of the frame; other- 
wise the frame will become too cold about the outside, and the 
plants will suffer. 

It is preferable, however, to have a pit beneath the frame 
in which the manure is placed. If the bed is to be started in 




204. Hotbed with manure on top of the ground. 

midwinter or very early in the spring, it is advisable to make 
this pit in the fall and to fill it with straw or other litter to 
prevent the earth from freezing deep. When it is time to make 
the bed, the litter is thrown out, and the ground is warm and 
ready to receive the fermenting manure. The pit should be 
a foot wider on either side than the width of the frame. 
Fig. 205 is a cross-section of such a hotbed pit. Upon the 
ground a layer of an inch or two of any coarse material is placed 
to keep the manure off the cold earth. Upon this, from twelve 
to thirty inches of manure is placed. Above the manure is a 
thin layer of leafmold or some porous material, that will serve 
as a distributor of the heat, and above this is four or five inches 
of soft garden loam, in which the plants are to be grown. 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



171 



It is advisable to place the manure in the pit in layers, each 
stratum to be thoroughly trodden down before another one is 
put in. These layers should be four to eight inches in thickness. 
By this means the mass is easily made uniform in consistency. 
Manure that has too much straw for the best results, and which 
will therefore soon part with its heat, will spring up quickly 
when the pressure of the feet is removed. Manure that has 




205. Section of a hotbed built with a pit. 



too little straw, and which therefore will not heat well or will 
spend its heat quickly, will pack down into a soggy mass under- 
neath the feet. When the manure has sufficient litter, it will 
give a springy feeling to the feet as a person walks over it, but 
will not fluff up when the pressure is removed. The quantity 
of manure to be used will depend on its quality, and also on the 
season in which the hotbed is made. The earlier the bed is 
made, the larger should be the quantity of manure. Hotbeds 
that are intended to hold for two months should have about two 
feet of manure, as a rule. 

The manure will ordinarily heat very vigorously for a few 
days after it is placed in the bed. A soil thermometer should be 



172 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



thrust through the earth down to the manure, and the frame 
kept tightly closed. When the temperature is passing below 
90°, seeds of the warm plants, like tomatoes, may be sown, and 
when it passes below 80° or 70°, the seeds of cooler plants may 
be sown. 

If hotbeds are to be used every year, permanent pits should be 
provided for them. Pits are made from two to three feet deep, 
preferably the former depth, and are walled up with stone or 
brick. It is important that they be given good drainage from 
below. In the summer-time, after the sash are stripped, the 



ten<le<L 




206. Parallel runs of hotbeds with racks for holding sashes. 

old beds may be used for the growing of various delicate crops, 
as melons or half-hardy flowers. In this position, the plants 
can be protected in the fall. As already suggested, the pits 
should be cleaned out in the fall and filled with litter to facilitate 
the work of making the new bed in the winter or spring . 

Various modifications of the common type of hotbed will 
suggest themselves to the operator. The frames should ordi- 
narily run in parallel rows, so that a man walking between them 
can attend to the ventilation of two rows of sash at once. Fig. 
206 shows a different arrangement. There are two parallel runs, 
with walks on the outside, and between them are racks to 
receive the sash from the adjacent frames. The sash from 
the left-hand bed are run to the right, and those from the 
right-hand bed are run to the left. Running on racks, the 
operator does not need to handle them, and the breakage of 
glass is therefore less; but this system is little used because 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 



173 




207. Manure-heated greenhouse. 



of the difficulty of reaching the farther side of the bed from 
the single walk. 

If the hotbed were high enough and broad enough to allow a 
man, to work inside, we should have a forcing-house. Such a 
structure is shown in Fig. 207, upon one side of which the manure 
and soil are already in 
place. These manure- 
heated houses are often 
very efficient, and are 
a good make-shift un- 
til such time as the 
gardener can afford to 
put in flue or pipe heat. 
Hotbeds may be 
heated by means of 
steam or hot water. They can be piped from the heater in 
a dwelling-house or greenhouse. Fig. 208 shows a hotbed with 
two pipes, in the positions 7, 7 beneath the bed. The earth 
is shown at 4, and the plants (which, in this case, are vines) 

are growing upon a rack, at 6. 
There are doors in the end of 
the house, shown in 2, 2, which 
may be used for ventilation or 
for admitting air underneath 
the beds. The pipes should not 
be surrounded by earth, but 
should run through a free air 

208. Pipe-heated hotbed. Space. 

It would scarcely pay to put in a hot water or steam heater 
for the express purpose of heating hotbeds, for if such an ex- 
pense were incurred, it would be better to make a forcing-house. 
Hotbeds may be heated, however, with hot-air flues with very 
good results. A home-made brick furnace may be constructed 
in a pit at one end of the run and underneath a shed, and the 




174 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



smoke and hot air, instead of being carried directly upwards, is 
carried through a slightly rising horizontal pipe that runs 
underneath the beds. For some distance from the furnace, 
this flue may be made of brick or unverified sewer pipe, but 
stove-pipe may be used for the greater part of the run. The 
chimney is ordinarily at the farther end of the run of beds. It 
should be high, in order to provide a good draft. If the run of 
beds is long, there should be a rise in the underlying pipe of at 
least one foot in twenty-five. The greater the rise in this pipe, 

the more perfect 
will be the draft. 
If the runs are 
not too long, the 
underlying pipe 
may return un- 
derneath the 
beds and enter a 
chimney directly 
over the back 
end of the fur- 
nace, and such a 
chimney, being 
warmed from the furnace, will ordinarily have an excellent 
draft. The underlying pipe should occupy a free space 
or pit beneath the beds, and whenever it lies near to the 
floor of the bed or is very hot, it should be covered with 
asbestos cloth. While such flue-heated hotbeds may be 
eminently successful with a grower or builder of experience, it 
may nevertheless be said, as a general statement, that when- 
ever such trouble and expense are incurred, it is better to make 
a forcing-house. The subject of forcing-houses and green- 
houses is not discussed in this book. 

The most satisfactory material for use in hotbed and cold- 
frame sash is double-thick, second-quality glass ; and panes 




209. Useful kinds of watering-pots. These are adapted 
to different uses, as are different forms of hoes or 
pruning tools. 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 175 

twelve inches wide are ordinarily broad enough, and they 
suffer comparatively little in breakage. For coldframes, how- 
ever, various oiled papers and waterproof cloths may be used, 
particularly for plants that are started little in advance of the 
opening of the season. When these materials are used, it is 
not necessary to have expensive sash, but rectangular frames 
are made from strips of pine seven-eighths inch thick and two 
and one-half inches wide, halved together at the corners and 
each corner reenforced by a square carriage-corner, such as is 
used by carriage-makers to secure the corners of buggy boxes. 
These corners can be bought by the pound at hardware stores. 

Management of hotbeds. 

Close attention is required in the management of hotbeds, 
to insure that they do not become too hot when the sun comes 
out suddenly, and to give plenty of fresh air. 

Ventilation is usually effected by raising the sash at the 
upper end and letting it rest upon a block. Whenever the 
temperature is above freezing point, it is generally advisable 
to take the sash off part way, as shown in the central part 
of Fig. 199, or even to strip it off entirely, as shown in 
Fig. 197. 

Care should be taken not to water the plants at nightfall, 
especially in dull and cold weather, but to give them water 
in the morning, when the sun will soon bring the temperature 
up to its normal state. Skill and judgment in watering are of 
the greatest importance in the management of hotbeds; but 
this skill comes only from thoughtful practice. The satisfac- 
tion and effectiveness of the work are greatly increased by good 
hose connections and good watering-pots (Fig. 209). 

Some protection, other than the glass, must be given to hot- 
beds. They need covering on every cold night, and sometimes 
during the entire day in very severe weather. Very good ma- 
terial for covering the sash is matting, such as is used for cov- 



176 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



ering floors. Old pieces of carpet may also be used. Various 
hotbed mattings are sold by dealers in gardeners'- supplies. 

Gardeners often make mats of rye straw, although the price 
of good straw and the excellence of manufactured materials 
make this home-made matting less desirable than formerly. 
Such mats are thick and durable, and are rolled up in the morn- 
ing, as shown in Fig. 199. There are various methods of making 
these straw mats, but Fig. 210 illustrates one of the best. A 
frame is made after the manner of a saw-horse, with a double 

top, and tarred or marline twine 
is used for securing the strands 
of straw. It is customary to use 
six runs of this warp. Twelve 
spools of string are provided, 
six hanging on either side. Some 
persons wind the cord upon two 
twenty-penny nails, as shown 
in the figure, these nails being- 
held together at one end by 
wire which is secured in notches 

The making of straw mats. filed ^ them The other endg 

of the spikes are free, and allow the string to be caught be- 
tween them, thus preventing the balls from unwinding as they 
hang upon the frame. Two wisps of straight rye straw are 
secured and laid upon the frame, with the butt ends outward 
and the heads overlapping. Two opposite spools are then 
brought up, and a hard knot is tied at each point. The pro- 
jecting butts of the straw are then cut off with a hatchet, and 
the mat is allowed to drop through to receive the next pair of 
wisps. In making these mats, it is essential that the rye con- 
tains no ripe grain; otherwise it attracts the mice. It is best 
to grow rye for this especial purpose, and to cut it before the 
grain is in the milk, so that the straw does not need to be 
threshed. 

/ 




210. 



THE HANDLING OF THE PLANTS 111 

In addition to these coverings of straw or matting, it is some- 
times necessary to provide board shutters to protect the beds, 
particularly if the plants are started very early in the season. 
These shutters are made of half-inch or five-eighths-inch pine 
lumber, and are the same size as the sash — three by six feet. 
They may be placed upon the sash underneath the matting, 
or they may be used above the matting. In some cases they 
are used without any matting. 

In the growing of plants in hotbeds, every effort should be 
made to prevent the plants from growing spindling, or becoming 
" drawn." To make stocky plants, it is necessary to give room 
to each plant, to be sure that the distance from the plants to the 
glass is not great, to provide not too much water in dull and cold 
weather, and particularly to give abundance of air. 



CHAPTER VI 

PROTECTING PLANTS FROM THINGS THAT PREY ON THEM 

Plants are preyed on by insects and fungi; and they are 
subject to various kinds of disease that, for the most part, are 
not yet understood. They are often injured also by mice and 
rabbits (p. 144), by moles, dogs, cats, and chickens; and fruit is 
eaten by birds. Moles may be troublesome on sandy land; 
they heave the ground by their burrowing and may often be 
killed by stamping when the burrow is being raised; there are 
mole traps that are more or less successful. Dogs and cats 
work injury mostly by walking across newly made gardens 
or lying in them. These animals, as well as chickens, should 
be kept within their proper place (p. 160); or if they roam at 
will, the garden must be inclosed in a tight wire fence or the 
beds protected by brush laid closely over them. 

The insects and diseases that attack garden plants are legion; 
and yet, for the most part, they are not very difficult to combat if 
one is timely and thorough in his operations. These difficulties 
may be divided into three great categories : the injuries wrought 
by insects; the injuries of parasitic fungi; the various types 
of so-called constitutional diseases, some of which are caused by 
germs or bacteria, and many of which have not yet been worked 
out by investigators. 

The diseases caused by parasitic fungi are usually distinguished 
by distinct marks, spots or blisters on the leaves or stems, 
and the gradual weakening or death of the part; and, in many 
cases, the leaves drop bodily. For the most part, these spots 
on the leaves or stems sooner or later exhibit a mildew-like or 

178 



PROTECTING PLANTS 



179 




rusty appearance, due to the development of the spores or 
fruiting bodies. Fig. 211 illustrates the ravages of one of the 
parasitic fungi, the shot- 
hole fungus of the plum. 
Each spot probably rep- 
resents a distinct attack 
of the fungus, and in this 
particular disease these 
inj ured parts of tissue are 

liable to fall OUt, leaving 211. Shot-hole disease of plum. 

holes in the leaf. Plum leaves that are attacked early in the sea- 
son by this disease usually drop 
prematurely; but sometimes the 
leaves persist, being riddled by 
holes at the close of the sea- 
son. Fig. 212 is the rust of the 
hollyhock. In this case the 
pustules of the fungus are very 
definite on the under side of the 
leaf. The blisters of leaf-curl 
are shown in Fig. 213. The 
ragged work of apple scab fungus 
212. Hollyhock rust. i s shown in Fig. 214. 

The constitutional and bacterial diseases usually affect the 

whole plant, or at least large portions of it; and the seat of 





213. Leaf-curl of peach, due to a fungus. 




180 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

attack is commonly not so much in the individual leaves as in 
the stems, the sources of food supply being thereby cut off from 
the foliage. The symptoms of this class of 
diseases are general weakening of plant when 
the disease affects the plant as a 
whole or when it attacks large 
branches; or sometimes the 
leaves shrivel and die about 
the edges or in large irregu- 
lar discolored spots, but 
without the dis- 
tinct pustular 
marks of the 
parasitic fungi. 

There is a gen- 214. Leaves and fruits injured by fungi, chiefly apple- 
era] tendency scab - 
for the foliage on plants affected with such diseases to shrivel 
and to hang on the stem for a time. One of the best illus- 
trations of this type of disease is the pear-blight. Sometimes 
the plant gives rise to abnormal growths, as in the " willow 
shoots" of peaches affected with yellows (Fig. 215). 

Another class of diseases are the root-galls. They are of 
various kinds. The root-gall of raspberries, crown-gall of 
peaches, apples, and other trees, is the most popularly recognized 
of this class of troubles (Fig. 216). It has long been known as 
a disease of nursery stock. Many states have laws against 
the sale of trees showing this disease. Its cause was unknown, 
until "in 1907 Smith and Townsend, of the Bureau of Plant 
Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, undertook 
an investigation. They proved that it is a bacterial disease 
(caused by Bacterium tumefaciens) ; but just how the bacteria 
gain entrance to the root is not known. The same bacterium 
may cause galls on the stems of other plants, as, for example, 
on certain of the daisies. The " hairy-root" of apples, and 



PROTECTING PLANTS 



181 



certain galls that often appear on the limbs of large apple-trees, 
are also known to be caused by this same bacterium. The 
disease seems to be most 
serious and destructive 
on the raspberry, par- 
ticularly the Cuthbert 
variety. The best thing 
to be done when the rasp- 
berry patch becomes in- 
fested is to root out the 
plants and destroy them, 
planting a new patch 
with clean stock on land 
that has not grown ber- 
ries for some time. Not- 
withstanding the laws 
that have been made 
against the distribution 
of root-gall from nurs- 
eries, the evidence seems 
to show that it is not a 
serious disease of apples 
or peaches, at least not 

in the northeastern United States. It is not 
determined how far it may injure such trees. 
Of obvious insect injuries, there are two 
general types, — those wrought by insects that 
bite or chew their food, as the ordinary beetles 
and worms, and those wrought by insects that 
puncture the surface of the plant and derive 
their food by sucking the juices, as scale-insects 
and plant-lice. The canker-worm (Fig. 217) is a 
notable example of the former class; and many 

^lO. vj£Lll OH El m m 

raspberry root, of these insects may be dispatched by the apph- 




215. The slender tufted growth indicating 
peach yellows. The cause of this disease 
is undetermined. 




182 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




cation of poison to the parts 
that they eat. It is apparent, 
however, that insects which 
suck the juice of the plant 
are not poisoned by any 
liquid that may be applied 
to the surface. They may 
be killed by various mate- 
rials that act upon them ex- 
ternally, as the soap washes, miscible oils, kerosene 
emulsions, lime-and-sulfur sprays, and the like. 

There has been much activity in recent years in the 
identification and studjr of insects, fungi, and micro- 
organisms that injure plants; and great numbers of 
bulletins and monographs have been published; and 
yet the gardener who has tried assiduously to follow 
these investigations is likely to go to his garden any 
morning and find troubles that he cannot identify and 
which perhaps even an investigator himself might 
not understand. It is important, therefore, that the 
gardener inform himself not only on particular kinds 
of insects and diseases, but that he develop a re- 
sourcefulness of his own. He should be able to do 
something, even if he does not know a complete 
remedy or specific. Some of the procedure, prevent- 
ive and remedial, that needs always to be considered, 
is as follows: — 

Keep the place clean, and free from infection. 
Next to keeping the plants vigorous and strong, 
this is the first and best means of averting 
trouble from insects and fungi. Rubbish and 
all places in which the insects can hibernate 
and the fungi can propagate should be done 
away with. All fallen leaves from plants that 









PROTECTING PLANTS 



183 



have been attacked by fungi should be raked up and 
burned, and in the fall all diseased wood should be cut 
out and destroyed. It is important that diseased plants 
are not thrown on the manure heap, to be distributed 
through the garden the following season. 
Practice a rotation or alternation of crops (p. 114). Some 
of the diseases remain in the gj^gt^ Rs^sas^jBg ^ 
soil and attack the plant year JP 

., -txti 218. A garden hand syringe.^ 

after year. Whenever any B V 

crop shows signs of root disease, or soil disease, it is partic- 
ularly important that another crop be grown on the place. 
See that the disease or insect is not bred on weeds or other 
plants that are botanically related to the crop you grow. 
If the wild mallow, or plant known to children as 
"cheeses" {Malm rotundifolia) , is destroyed, there will 

be much less difficulty with 
hollyhock rust. Do not let 
the cabbage club-root disease 
breed on wild turnips and 
other mustards, or black- 
knot on plum sprouts and 
wild cherries, or tent-cater- 
pillars on wild cherries, and 
other trees. 
Always be ready to resort to 
hand-picking. We have 
grown so accustomed to kill- 
219. A knapsack pump. j ng msec t s by other means 

that we have almost forgotten that hand-picking is often 
the surest and sometimes even the most expeditious 
means of checking an invasion in a home garden. Many 
insects can be jarred off early in the morning. Egg- 
masses on leaves and stems may be removed. Cut- 
worms may be dug out. Diseased leaves may be picked 




184 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



off and burned; this will do much to combat the holly- 
hock rust, aster rust, and other infections. 




220. A compressed-air 
hand pump for gar- 
den work. 





221. A bucket 
pump. 



222. A bucket 
pump. 



Keep close watch on the plants, and be prepared to strike 
, quickly. It should be a matter of pride to a gardener to 
have in his workhouse 
a supply of the common 
insecticides and fungi- 
cides (Paris green or 
arsenate of lead, some 
of the tobacco prepara- 
tions, white hellebore, 
whale-oil soap, bor- 
deaux mixture, flowers 
of sulfur, carbonate of 

copper for solution in 223. A cart-mounted pump. 




PROTECTING PLANTS 



185 



ammonia), and also a good hand syringe (Fig. 218), a 
knapsack pump (Figs. 219, 220), a bucket pump (Figs. 
221, 222), a hand bellows or powder gun, perhaps a 
barrow outfit (Figs. 223, 224, 225), and if the planta- 
tion is large enough, some kind of a force pump (Figs. 
226, 227, 228). If one is always ready, there is little 




226. A barrel hand pump. 



227. A barrel outfit, showing nozzles on 
extension rods for trees. 



186 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



danger from any insect or disease that is controllable 
by spraying. 




Screens and covers. 

There are various ways of keeping insects away from plants. 
One of the best is to cover the plants with fine mosquito-netting 

or to grow them in hand- 
frames, or to use a wire- 
covered box like that shown 
in Fig. 229. In growing 
plants under such covers, care 
must be taken that the plants 
are not kept too close or con- 
fined; and in cases in which 
the insects hibernate in the 

228. A truck-mounted barrel hand spray Soil, these boxes, by keeping 

P um P- the soil warm, may cause the 

insects to hatch all the sooner. In most cases, however, these 
covers are very efficient, especially for keeping the striped 
bugs off young plants . of 
melons and cucumbers. 

Cut-worms may be kept 
away from plants by placing 
sheets of tin or of heavy 
glazed paper about the stem 
of the plant, as shown in Fig. 
230. Climbing cut- worms are 
kept off young trees by the 
means shown in Fig. 231. 
Or a roll of cotton may be 
placed about the trunk of 
the tree, a string being tied 
on the lower edge of the roll 




229. 



Wire-covered box for protecting 
plants from insects. 



PROTECTING PLANTS 



187 



'mm 




230. Protecting from 

cut-worms. 



and the upper edge of the cotton turned down like the top of 
a boot ; the insects cannot crawl over this obstruction (p. 203). 

The maggots that attack the roots of y ^ 

cabbages and cauliflowers may be kept 
from the plant by pieces of tarred paper, 
which are placed close about the stem upon 
the surface of the ground. Fig. 232 illus- 
trates a hexagon of paper, and also shows 
a tool used for cutting it. This means of 
preventing the attacks of the cabbage 
maggot is described in detail by the late 

Professor Goff (for 

another method of 

controlling cabbage maggot see p. 201) : — 
" The cards are cut in a hexagonal 

form, in order better to economize the 

material, and a thinner grade of tarred 

paper than the 

ordinary roofing 

felt is used, as 

it is not only 

cheaper, but be- 
ing more flexible, 

the cards made 

from it are more 



231. Protecting trees from rea dily placed 

cut-worms. 

about the plant 
without being torn. The blade of the 
tool, which should be made by an expert 
blacksmith, is formed from a band of 
steel, bent in the form of a half hexagon, 
and then taking an acute angle, reaches 
nearly to the center, as shown in Fig. 232. The part making 
the star-shaped cut is formed from a separate piece of steel, so 






>< 



232. Showing how paper is 
cut for protecting cab- 
bages from maggots. 
The Goff device. 



188 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

attached to the handle as to make a close joint with the blade. 
The latter is beveled from the outside all round, so that by 
removing the part making the star-shaped cut, the edge may 
be ground on a grindstone. It is important that the angles in 
the blade be made perfect, and that its outline represents an 
exact half hexagon. To use the tool, place the tarred paper 
on the end of a section of a log or piece of timber and first cut 
the lower edge into notches, as indicated at a, Fig. 232, using only 
one angle of the tool . Then commence at the left side and place 
the blade as indicated by the dotted lines, and strike at the end 
of the handle with a light mallet, and a complete card is made. 
Continue in this manner across the paper. The first cut of 
every alternate course will make an imperfect card, and the 
last cut in any course may be imperfect, but the other cuts will 
make perfect cards if the tool is correctly made, and properly 
used. The cards should be placed about the plants at the time 
of transplanting. To place the card, bend it slightly to open the 
slit, then slip it on to the center, the stem entering the slit, 
after which spread the card out flat, and press the points 
formed by the star-shaped cut snugly around the stem." 

Fumigating. 

An effective means of destroying insects in glass houses is by 
fumigating with various kinds of smoke or vapors. The best 
material to use for general purposes is some form of tobacco 
or tobacco compounds. The old method of fumigating with 
tobacco is to burn slowly slightly dampened tobacco stems in a 
kettle or scuttle, allowing the house to be filled with the pungent 
smoke. Lately, however, fluid extracts and other preparations 
of tobacco have been brought into use, and these are so effective 
that the tobacco-stem method is becoming obsolete. The use 
of hydrocyanic acid gas in greenhouses is now coming to be 
common, for plant-lice, white-fly, and other insects. It is also 
used to fumigate nursery stock for San Jose scale, and mills 



PROTECTING PLANTS 189 

and dwellings for such pests and vermin as become established 
in them. The following directions are from Cornell Bulletin 
252 (from which the formulas in the succeeding pages, and 
most of the advice, are also taken) : — 

"No general formula can be given for fumigating the different 
kinds of plants grown in greenhouses, as the species and varieties 
differ greatly in their ability to withstand the effects of the gas. 
Ferns and roses are very susceptible to injury, and fumigation 
if attempted at all should be performed with great caution. 
Fumigation will not kill insect eggs and thus must be repeated 
when the new brood appears. Fumigate only at night when 
there is no wind. Have the house as dry as possible and the 
temperature as near 60° as practicable. 

" Hydrocyanic acid gas is a deadly poison, and the greatest 
care is required in its use. Always use 98 to 100 per cent pure 
potassium cyanide and a good grade of commercial sulfuric 
acid. The chemicals are always combined in the following 
proportion: Potassium cyanide, 1 oz.; sulfuric acid, 2 fluid 
oz.; water, 4 fluid oz. Always use an earthen dish, your in 
the water first, and add the sulfuric acid to it. Put the required 
amount of cyanide in a thin paper bag and when all is ready, 
drop it into the liquid and leave the room immediately. For 
mills and dwellings, use 1 oz. of cyanide for every 100 cu. 
ft. of space. Make the doors and windows as tight as pos- 
sible by pasting strips of paper over the cracks. Remove the 
silverware and food, and if brass and nickel work cannot be 
removed, cover with vaseline. Place the proper amount of the 
acid and water for every room in 2-gal. jars. Use two or more 
in large rooms or halls. Weigh out the potassium cyanide in 
paper bags, and place them near the jars. When all is ready, 
drop the cyanide into the jars, beginning on the top floors, 
since the fumes are lighter than air. In large buildings, it is 
frequently necessary to suspend the bags of cyanide over the 
jars by cords running through screw eyes and all leading to a 



190 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

place near the door. By cutting all the cords at once the 
cyanide will be lowered into the jars and the operator may 
escape without injury. Let the fumigation continue all 
night, locking all outside doors and placing danger signs on 
the house." 

In greenhouses, the white-fly on cucumbers and tomatoes may 
be killed by overnight fumigation with 1 oz. of potassium cya- 
nide to every 1000 cu. ft. of space; or with a kerosene emulsion 
spray or whale-oil soap, on plants not injured by these materials. 

The green aphis is dispatched in houses by fumigation with 
any of the tobacco preparations; on violets, by fumigation with 
y to f oz. potassium cyanide for every 1000 cu. ft. of space, 
leaving the gas in from \ to 1 hr. 

The black aphis is more difficult to kill than the green aphis, 
but may be controlled by the sarfie methods thoroughly used. 

Soaking tubers and seeds. 

Potato scab may be prevented, so far as planting infected 
"seed" is concerned, by soaking the seed tubers for half an 
hour in 30 gal. of water containing 1 pt. of commercial 
(about 40 per cent) formalin. Oats and wheat, when at- 
tacked by certain kinds of smut, may be rendered safe to sow 
by soaking for ten minutes in a similar solution. It is prob- 
able that some other tubers and seeds can be similarly treated 
with good results. 

Potatoes may also be soaked (for scab) one and one-half 
hours in a solution of corrosive sublimate, 1 oz. to '7 gal. of 
water. 

Spraying. 

The most effective means of destroying insects and fungi 
however, in any general or large way, is by the use of various 
sprays. The two general types of insecticides have already 
been mentioned — those that kill by poisoning, and those that 



PROTECTING PLANTS 191 

kill by destroying the body of the insect. Of the former, there 
are three materials in common use — Paris green, arsenate of 
lead, and hellebore. Of the latter, the most usual at present 
are kerosene emulsion, miscible oils, and the lime-sulfur 
wash. 

Sprays for fungi usually depend for their efficiency on some 
form of copper or sulfur, or both. For surface mildews, as 
grape mildew, dusting flowers of sulfur on the foliage is a pro- 
tection. In most cases, however, it is necessary to apply 
materials in liquid form, because they can be more thoroughly 
and economically distributed, and they adhere to the foliage 
better. The best general fungicide is the bordeaux mixture. 
It is generally, however, not advisable to use the bordeaux 
mixture on ornamental plants, because it discolors the foliage 
and makes the plants look very untidy. In such cases it is best 
to use the ammoniacal copper solution, which leaves no stain. 

In all spraying operations it is especially important that the 
applications be made the very moment the insect or disease is 
discovered, or in the case of fungous diseases, if one is expecting 
an attack, it is well to make an application of bordeaux mix- 
ture even before the disease appears. When the fungus once 
gets inside the plant tissue, it is very difficult to destroy 
it, inasmuch as fungicides act on these deep-seated fungi very 
largely by preventing their fruiting and their further spread on 
the surface of the leaf. For ordinary conditions, from two to 
four sprayings are necessary to dispatch the enemy. In spray- 
ing for insects in home gardens, it is often advisable to make a 
second application the day following the first one in order to 
destroy the remaining insects before they recover from the 
first treatment. 

There are many kinds of machines and devices for the ap- 
plication of sprays to plants. For a few individual specimens, 
the spray may be applied with a wjiisk, or with a common garden 
syringe. If one has a few trees to treat, however, it is best to 



192 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



have some kind of bucket pump like those shown in Figs. 221, 

222. On a lawn or in a small garden a tank on wheels (Figs. 

223, 224, 225) is handy and efficient. In such cases, or even 
for larger areas, some of the knapsack pumps (Figs. 219, 220) 
are very desirable. These machines are always serviceable, 
because the operator stands so near to his work; but as they 
carry a comparatively small quantity of liquid and do not 

throw it rapidly, they are expensive 
when much work is to be done. 
Yet, in ordinary home grounds, the 
knapsack pump or compressed-air 
pump is one of the most efficient 
and practicable of all the spraying 
devices. 

For large areas, as for small or- 
chards and fields, a barrel pump 
mounted on a wagon is best. Com- 
mon types of barrel pumps are shown 
in Figs. 226, 227, 228. Commercial 
plantations are now sprayed by 
power machines. There are many 
good patterns of spraying machines, 
and the intending purchaser should 
send for catalogues to the various 
manufacturers. The addresses may 
be found in the advertising pages 
of rural papers. 

As to nozzles for spraying it may 
be said that there is no one pattern 
that is best for all purposes. For most uses in home grounds 
the cyclone or vermorel type (Fig. 233) will give best satisfac- 
tion. The pump manufacturers supply special nozzles for 
their machines. 




233. Cyclone or vermorel type 
of nozzle, single and multiple. 



PROTECTING PLANTS 193 



Insecticide spraying formulas. 

The two classes of insecticides are here described, — the 
poisons (arsenites and white hellebore) for chewing insects, as 
the beetles and all kinds of worms; the contact insecticides, as 
kerosene, oils, soap, tobacco, lime-sulfur, for plant-lice, scale, 
and insects in such position that the material cannot be fed to 
them (as maggots in the underground parts). 

Paris green. — The standard insecticidal poison. This is used in 
varying strengths, depending on the insect to be controlled and the 
kind of plant treated. Mix the Paris green into a paste and then add 
to the water. Keep the mixture thoroughly agitated while spraying. 
If for use on fruit trees, add 1 lb. of quick lime for every pound of Paris 
green to prevent burning the foliage. For potatoes it is frequently 
used alone, but it is much safer to use the lime. Paris green and 
bordeaux mixture may be combined without lessening the value of 
either, and the caustic action of the arsenic is prevented. The propor- 
tion of the poison to use is given under the various insects discussed in 
the succeeding pages. 

Arsenate of lead. — This can be applied in a stronger mixture than 
other arsenical poisons without injuring the foliage. It is, therefore, 
much used against beetles and other insects that are hard to poison, 
as elm-leaf beetle and canker-worm. It comes in the form of a paste 
and should be mixed thoroughly with a small quantity of water before 
placing in the sprayer, else the nozzles will clog. Arsenate of lead and 
bordeaux mixture can be combined without lessening the value of 
either. It is used in strengths varying from 4 to 10 lb. per 100 gal., 
depending on the kind of insect to be killed. 

Arsenite of soda and arsenite of lime are sometimes used with bor- 
deaux mixture. 

White Hellebore. — For wet application, use fresh white hellebore, 
4 oz.; water, 2 or 3 gal. For dry application, use hellebore, 1 lb.; 
flour or air-slaked lime, 5 lb. This is a white, yellowish powder made 
from the roots of the white hellebore plant. It loses its strength after 
a time and should be used fresh. It is used as a substitute for the 



194 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

arsenical poisons on plants or fruits soon to be eaten, as on currants 
and gooseberries for the currant-worm. 

Tobacco. — This is a valuable insecticide and is used in several 
forms. As a dust it is used extensively in greenhouses for plant-lice, 
and in nurseries and about apple trees for the woolly aphis. Tobacco 
decoction is made by steeping or soaking the stems in water. It is 
often used as a spray against plant-lice. Tobacco in the form of ex- 
tracts, punks, and powders is sold under various trade names for use in 
fumigating greenhouses. (See page 188.) 

Kerosene emulsion. — Hard, soft, or whale-oil soap, \ lb. ; water, 
1 gal. ; kerosene, 2 gal. Dissolve the soap in hot water ; remove from 
the fire and while still hot add the kerosene. Pump the liquid back 
into itself for five or ten minutes or until it becomes a creamy mass. 
If properly made, the oil will not separate out on cooling. 

For use on dormant trees, dilute with 5 to 7 parts of water. For 
killing plant-lice on foliage dilute with 10 to 15 parts of water. Crude 
oil emulsion is made in the same way by substituting crude oil in 
place of kerosene. The strength of oil emulsions is frequently indi- 
cated by the percentage of oil in the diluted liquid : — 

For a 10% emulsion add 17 gal. of water to 3 gal. stock emulsion. 
For a 15% emulsion add 10^ gal. of water to 3 gal. stock emulsion. 
For a 20% emulsion add 7 gal. of water to 3 gal. stock emulsion. 
For a 25% emulsion add 5 gal. of water to 3 gal. stock emulsion. 

Carbolic acid emulsion. — Soap, 1 lb.; water, 1 gal.; crude carbolic 
acid, 1 pt. Dissolve the soap in hot water, add the carbolic acid, and 
agitate into an emulsion. For use against root-maggots, dilute with 
30 parts of water. 

Soaps. — An effective insecticide for plant-lice is whale-oil soap. 
Dissolve in hot water and dilute so as to obtain one pound of soap to 
every five or seven gallons of water. This strength is effective against 
plant-lice. It should be applied in stronger solutions, however, for 
scale insects. Home-made soaps and good laundry soaps, like Ivory 
soap, are often as effective as whale-oil soap. 

Miscible oils. — There are now on the market a number of prepara- 
tions of petroleum and other oils intended primarily for use against 
the San Jose scale. They mix readily with cold water and are immedi- 






PROTECTING PLANTS 195 

ately ready for use. While quickly prepared, easily applied, and gen- 
erally effective, they cost considerably more than lime-sulfur wash. 
They are, however, less corrosive to the pumps and more agreeable to 
use. They are especially valuable to the man with only a few trees or 
shrubs who would not care to go to the trouble and expense to make 
up the lime-sulfur wash. They should be diluted with not more than 
10 or 12 parts of water. Use only on dormant trees. 

Lime and sulfur wash. — Quicklime, 20 lb. ; flowers of sulfur, 15 lb. ; 
water, 50 gal. The lime and sulfur must be thoroughly boiled. An 
iron kettle is often convenient for the work. Proceed as follows: 
Place the lime in the kettle. Add hot water gradually in sufficient 
quantity to produce the most rapid slaking of the lime. When the 
lime begins to slake, add the sulfur and stir together. If convenient, 
keep the mixture covered, with burlap to save the heat. After slaking 
has ceased, add more water and boil the mixture one hour. As the 
sulfur goes into solution, a rich orange-red or dark green color will 
appear. After boiling sufficiently, add water to the required amount 
and strain into the spray tank. The wash is most effective when ap- 
plied warm, but may be applied cold. If one has access to a steam 
boiler, boiling with steam is more convenient and satisfactory. Bar- 
rels may be used for holding the mixture, and the steam applied by 
running a pipe or rubber hose into the mixture. Proceed in the same 
way until the lime is slaked, when the steam may be turned on. 
Continue boiling for 45 min. to an hour, or until sulfur is dissolved. 

This strength can be applied safely only when the trees are dor- 
mant. It is mainly an insecticide for San Jose scale, although it has 
considerable value as a fungicide. 

Lime-sulfur mixtures and solutions for summer spraying are now 
coming to take the place of bordeaux in many cases. Scott's self- 
boiled lime-sulfur mixture, described in U. S. D. A. Bureau Plant 
Industry Circ. 27 is now a standard fungicide for brown-rot and 
black-spot or scab of the peach. Concentrated lime-sulfur solutions, 
either home boiled or commercial, are effective against apple scab and 
have the advantage of not russeting the fruit. Such concentrates, 
testing 32° Baume, should be diluted at about 1 gal. to 30 of water. 
Apply at same time as with bordeaux. Add arsenate of lead as with 
bordeaux. 



196 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Fungicide spraying formulas. 

The standard fungicide is bordeaux mixture, made in several 
forms. The second most important fungicide for the home gar- 
dener is ammoniacal copper carbonate. Sulfur dust (flowers of 
sulfur) and liver of sulfur (potassium sulfide) are also useful in 
dry or wet sprays for surface mildews. The lime-sulfur wash, 
primarily an insecticide, also has fungicidal property. 

Bordeaux mixture. — Copper sulfate, 5 lb. ; stone lime or quick- 
lime (unslaked), 5 lb. ; water, 50 gal. This formula is the strength 
usually recommended. Stock mixtures of copper sulfate and lime are 
desirable. They are prepared in the following way : — 

(1) Dissolve the required amount of copper sulfate in water in the 
proportion of one pound to one gallon several hours before the solution 
is needed, the copper sulfate crystals being suspended in a sack near 
the top of the water. A solution of copper sulfate is heavier than 
water. As soon then, as the crystals begin to dissolve the solution will 
sink, keeping water in contact with the crystals. In this way, the 
crystals will dissolve much sooner than if placed in the bottom of the 
barrel of water. In case large quantities of stock solution are needed, 
two pounds of copper sulfate may be dissolved in one gallon of water. 

(2) Slake the required amount of lime in a tub or trough. Add the 
water slowly at first, so that the lime crumbles into a fine powder. If 
small quantities of lime are used, hot water is preferred. When com- 
pletely slaked, or entirely powdered, add more water. When the lime 
has slaked sufficiently, add water to bring it to a thick milk, or to a 
certain number of gallons. The amount required for each tank of 
spray mixture can be secured approximately from this stock mixture, 
which should not be allowed to dry out. 

(3) Use five gallons of stock solution of copper sulfate for every 
fifty gallons of bordeaux required. Pour this into the tank. Add 
water until the tank is about two-thirds full. From the stock lime 
mixture take the required amount. Knowing the number of pounds 
of lime in the stock mixture and the volume of, that mixture, one can 
take out approximately the number of pounds required. Dilute this 
a little by adding water, and strain into the tank. Stir the mixture, 






PROTECTING PLANTS 197 

and add water to make the required amount. Experiment stations 
often recommend the diluting of both the copper sulfate solution and 
the lime mixture to one-half the required amount before pouring to- 
gether. This is not necessary, and is often impracticable for commer- 
cial work. It is preferable to dilute the copper sulfate solution. Never 
pour together the strong stock mixtures and dilute afterward. Bor- 
deaux mixture of other strengths, as recommended, is made in the same 
way, except that the amounts of copper sulfate and lime are varied. 

(4) It is not necessary to weigh the lime in making bordeaux mix- 
ture, for a simple test can be used to determine when enough of a stock 
lime mixture has been added. Dissolve an ounce of yellow prussiate 
of potash in a pint of water and label it "poison." Cut a V-shaped 
slit in one side of the cork so that the liquid may be poured out in drops. 
Add the lime mixture to the diluted copper sulfate solution until the 
ferro-cyanide (or prussiate) test solution will not turn brown when 
dropped from the bottle into the mixture. It is always best to add a 
considerable excess of lime. 

"Sticker" or adhesive for bordeaux mixture. — Resin, 2 lb. ; sal soda 
(crystals), 1 lb. ; water, 1 gal. Boil until of a clear brown color — one 
to one and one-half hours. Cook in iron kettle in the open. Add 
this amount to each fifty gallons of bordeaux for onions and cabbage. 
For other plants difficult to wet, add this amount to every one hun- 
dred gallons of the mixture. This mixture will prevent the bordeaux 
from being washed off by the heaviest rains. 

Ammoniacal copper carbonate. — Copper carbonate, 5 oz. ; ammo- 
nia, 3 pt. ; water, 50 gal. Dilute the ammonia in seven or eight parts 
of water. Make a paste of the copper carbonate with a little water. 
Add the paste to the diluted ammonia, and stir until dissolved.. Add 
enough water to make fifty gallons. This mixture loses strength on 
standing, and therefore should be made as required. It is used in 
place of bordeaux when one wishes to avoid the coloring of maturing 
fruits or ornamental plants. Not as effective as bordeaux. 

Potassium sulfide. — Potassium sulfide (liver of sulfur), 3 oz. ; water, 
10 gal. As this mixture loses strength on standing, it should be made 
just before using. It is particularly valuable for the powdery mildew 
of many plants, especially gooseberry, carnation rust, rose mildew, etc. 

Sulfur. — Sulfur has been found to possess considerable value as a 



198 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

fungicide. The flowers of sulfur may be sprinkled over the plants, 
particularly when they are wet. It is most effective in hot, dry weather. 
In rose houses it is mixed with half its bulk of lime, and made into a 
paste with water. This is painted on the steam pipes. The fumes 
destroy mildew on the roses. Mixed with lime, it has proved effective 
in the control of onion smut when drilled into the rows with the seed. 
Sulfur is not effective against black-rot of grapes. 

Treatment for some of the common insects. 

The most approved preventive and remedial treatments for 
such insect pests as are most likely to menace home grounds 
and plantations are here briefly discussed. In case of any un- 
usual difficulty that he cannot control, the home-maker should 
take it up with the agricultural experiment station in the state, 
sending good specimens of the insect for identification. He 
should also have the publications of the station. 

The statements that are here made are intended as advice 
rather than as directions. They are chosen from good authori- 
ties (mostly from Slingerland and Crosby in this case) ; but the 
reader must, of course, assume his own risk in applying them. 
The effectiveness of any recommended treatment depends very 
largely on the care, thoroughness, and timeliness with which 
the work is done; and new methods and practices are constantly 
appearing as the result of new investigations. The dates given 
in these directions are for New York. 

Aphis or plant-louse. — The stock remedies for aphides or plant- 
lice are kerosene emulsion and the tobacco preparations. Whale-oil 
soap is also good. The tobacco may be applied as a spray, or in the 
house as fumigation; the commercial forms of nicotine are excellent. 
(See page 194.) Be sure to apply the remedy before the leaves have 
curled and afford protection for the lice ; be sure, also, to hit the under- 
side of the leaves, where the lice usually are. The presence of lice on 
trees is sometimes first discovered from the honey-dew that drops on 
walks. 




PROTECTING PLANTS 199 

Usually the emulsion is diluted with 10-15 parts of water for plant- 
lice (see formula, page 194) ; but some of the species (as the dark brown 
cherry-leaf louse) require a stronger emulsion, about 6 parts of water. 

The lady-birds (one of which is shown in Fig. 234) destroy great 
numbers of plant-lice, and their presence should there- 
fore be encouraged. 

Apple-maggot or "railroad-worm." — The small 
white maggots make brownish winding burrows in 
the flesh of the fruit, particularly in summer and early 
fall varieties. This insect cannot be reached by a 
spray as the parent fly inserts her eggs under the skin 
of the apple. When full-grown, the maggot leaves 
the fruit, passes into the ground, and there transforms 234 - Lady-bird 
inside a tough, leathery case. Tillage has been found above' 
to be of no value as a means of control. The only 
effective treatment is to pick up all windfalls every two or three days, 
and either to feed them out or to bury them deeply, thus killing the 
maggots. 

Asparagus beetle. — Clean cultural methods are usually sufficient to 
prevent the asparagus beetle's seriously injuring well-established beds. 
Young plants require more or less protection. A good grade of arsenate 
of lead, 1 lb. to 25 gal. of water, will quickly destroy the grubs on the 
foliage of either young or old plants. Apply it with an ordinary sprin- 
kling can, or better, use one of the numerous spraying devices now on 
the market. The necessity for treatment must be determined by the 
abundance of the pests. They should not be permitted to become 
abundant in midsummer or the over-wintering beetles may injure the 
shoots in the spring. 

Blister-mite on apple and pear. — The presence of this minute mite 
is indicated by small irregular brownish blisters on the leaves. Spray 
in late fall or early spring with the lime-sulfur wash, with kerosene 
emulsion, diluted with 5 parts of water, or miscible oil, 1 gal. in 10 gal. 
of water. 

Borers. — The only certain remedy for borers is to dig them out, or 
to punch them out with a wire. Keep the space about the base of the 
tree clean, and watch closely for any sign of borers. The flat-headed 
borer of the apple works under the bark on the trunk and larger 



200 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

branches, particularly where much exposed to sun. The dead and 
sunken appearance of the bark indicates its presence. The round 
headed borer works in the wood of apples, quinces, and other trees ; it 
should be hunted for every spring and fall. On hard land, it is well 
to dig the earth away from the base of the tree and fill the space with 
coal ashes ; this will make the work of examination much easier. 

The peach and apricot borer is the larva of a clear-wing moth. The 
larva burrows just under the bark near or beneath the surface of the 
ground ; its presence is indicated by a gummy mass at the base of 
the tree. Dig out the borers in June and mound up the trees. At th 
same time, apply gas-tar or coal-tar to the trunk from the roots to a 
foot or more above the surface of the ground. 

The bronze birch borer is destroying many fine white birch trees in 
some parts of the country. Its presence is known by the dying of the 
top of the tree. There yet is no known way of preventing this borer 
from attacking white birches, and the only practicable and effective 
method so far found for checking its ravages is promptly to cut and burn 
the infested trees in autumn, in winter, or before May 1. There is no 
probability of saving a tree when the top branches are dead, although 
cutting out the dead parts may stay the trouble temporarily. Cut 
and burn such trees at once and thus prevent the spread of the insect. 

Bud-moth on apple. — The small brown caterpillars with black 
heads devour the tender leaves and flowers of the opening apple buds in 
early spring. Make two applications of either 1 lb. Paris green or 4 lb. 
arsenate of lead in 100 gal. of water ; the first when the leaf -tips ap- 
pear and the second just before the blossoms open. If necessary, 
spray again after the blossoms fall. 

Cabbage and cauliflower insects. — The green caterpillars that eat 
cabbage leaves and heads hatch from eggs laid by the common white 
butterfly (Fig. 295). There are several broods every season. If plants 
are not heading, spray with kerosene emulsion or with Paris green to 
which the sticker has been added. If heading, apply hellebore. 

The cabbage aphides, small mealy plant-lice, are especially trouble- 
some during cool, dry seasons when their natural enemies are less 
active. Before the plants begin to head, spray with kerosene emul- 
sion diluted with 6 parts of water, or whale-oil soap, 1 lb. in 6 gal. 
of water. 



PROTECTING PLANTS 201 

The white maggots that feed on the roots hatch from eggs laid 
near the plant at the surface of the ground by a small fly somewhat 
resembling the common house fly. Hollow out the earth slightly 
around every plant and freely apply carbolic acid emulsion diluted 
with 30 parts of water. Begin the treatment early, a day or two 
after the plants are up or the next day after they are set out. Repeat 
the application every 7 to 10 days until the latter part of May. It 
has also been found to be practicable to protect the plants by the use 
of tightly fitting cards cut from tarred paper. (See page 187.) 

Canker-worms. — These caterpillars are small measuring-worms or 
loopers that defoliate apple trees in May and June (Fig. 217) . The 
female moths are wingless, and in late fall or early spring crawl up 
the trunks of the trees to lay their eggs on the branches. Spray thor- 
oughly once or twice, before the blossoms open, with 1 lb. Paris green 
or 4 lb. arsenate of lead in 100 gal. of water. Repeat the application 
after the blossoms fall. Prevent the ascent of the wingless females by 
means of sticky bands or wire-screen traps. 

Case-bearers on apple. — The small caterpillars live in pistol-shaped 
or cigar-shaped cases, about £ in. long. They appear in spring on 
the opening buds at the same time as the bud-moth and may be con- 
trolled by the same means. 

Codlin-moth. — The codlin-moth lays the eggs that produce the 
pinkish caterpillar which causes a large proportion of wormy apples 
and pears. The eggs are laid by a small moth on the leaves and on 
the skin of the fruit. Most of the caterpillars enter the apple at the 
blossom end. When the petals fall, the calyx is open and this is the 
time to spray. The calyx soon closes and keeps the poison inside 
ready for the young caterpillar's first meal. After the calyx has closed, 
it is too late to spray effectively. The caterpillars become full grown 
in July and August, leave the fruit, crawl down on the trunk, and there 
most of them spin cocoons under the loose bark. In most parts of the 
country there are two broods annually. Immediately after the blos- 
soms fall, spray with 1 lb. Paris green or 4 lb. arsenate of lead in 100 
gal. of water. Repeat the application 7 to 10 days later. Use burlap 
bands on trunks, killing all caterpillars under them every ten days 
from July 1 to August 1, and once later before winter. 

Cucurbit {cucumber, melon, and squash) insects. — Yellow, black- 



202 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

striped beetles appear in numbers and attack the plants as soon 
as they are up. Plant early squashes as a trap-crop around the field. 
Protect the vines with screens (Fig. 229) until they begin to run, or 
keep them covered with bordeaux mixture, thus making them dis- 
tasteful to the beetles. 

Squash vines are frequently killed by a white caterpillar that bur- 
rows in the stem near the base of the plant. Plant a few early squashes 
between the rows of the late varieties as a trap-crop. As soon as the 
early crop is harvested, remove and burn the vines. When the vines 
are long enough, cover them at the joints with earth in order to develop 
secondary root systems for the plant in case the main stem is injured. 

Dark green plant-lice feed on the under sides of squash leaves, 
causing them to curl and wither. Spray With kerosene emulsion 
diluted with 6 parts of water. It is necessary thoroughly to cover the 
under side of the leaves ; the sprayer, therefore, must be fitted with 
an upturned nozzle. Burn the vines as soon as the crop is harvested 
and keep down all weeds. 

The stink-bug is very troublesome to squashes. The rusty-black 
adult emerges from hibernation in spring and lays its eggs on the 
under side of the leaves. The nymphs suck the sap from the leaves 
and stalks, causing serious injury. Trap the adults under boards in 
the spring. Examine the leaves for the smooth shining brownish 
eggs and destroy them. The young nymphs may be killed with 
kerosene emulsion. 

Curculio. — The adult curculio of the plum and peach is a small 
snout-beetle that inserts its eggs under the skin of the fruit and then 
makes a characteristic crescent-shaped cut beneath it. The grub feeds 
within the fruit and causes it to drop. When full grown, it enters the 
ground, changes in late summer to the beetle, which finally goes into 
hibernation in sheltered places. Spray plums just after blossoms fall 
with arsenate of lead, 6 to 8 lb. in 100 gal. of water, and repeat the 
application in about a week. After the fruit has set, jar the trees 
daily over a sheet or curculio-catcher and destroy the beetles ; this is 
practically the only procedure for peaches, for they cannot be sprayed. 

The quince curculio is somewhat larger than that infesting the plum 
and differs in its life-history. The grubs leave the fruits in the fall 
and enter the ground, where they hibernate and transform to adults 



PROTECTING PLANTS 203 

the next May, June, or July, depending on the season. When the adults 
appear, jar them from the tree on sheets or curculio-catchers and 
destroy them. To determine when they appear, jar a few trees daily, 
beginning the latter part of May in New York. 

Currant-worm. — In the spring the small green, black-spotted larvae 
feed on the foliage of currants and gooseberries, beginning their work 
on the lower leaves. A second brood occurs in early summer. When 
worms first appear, spray with 1 lb. Paris green or 4 lb. arsenate of 
lead in 100 gal. of water. Ordinarily the poison should be combined 
with bordeaux (for leaf -spot) . 

Cut-worms. — Probably the remedy for cut-worms most often prac- 
ticed in gardens, and which cannot fail to be effective when faithfully 
carried out, is hand-picking with lanterns at night or digging them out 
from around the base of the infested plants during the day. Bushels 
of cut-worms have been gathered in this way, and with profit. When 
from some cause success does not attend the use of the poisoned baits, 
to be discussed next, hand-picking is the only other method yet recom- 
mended that can be relied upon to check cut-worm depredations. 

The best methods yet devised for killing cut-worms in any situation 
are the poisoned baits, using Paris green or arsenate of lead for the 
purpose. Poisoned bunches of clover or weeds have been thoroughly 
tested, even by the wagon-load, over large areas, and nearly all have 
reported them very effective; lamb's quarters (pigweed), pepper- 
grass, and mullein are among the weeds especially attractive to cut- 
worms. On small areas the making of the baits is done by hand, but 
they have been prepared on a large scale by spraying the plants in the 
field, cutting them with a scythe or machine, and pitching them from 
wagons in small bunches wherever desired. Distributed a few feet 
apart, between rows of garden plants at nightfall, they have attracted 
and killed enough cut-worms often to save a large proportion of 
the crop; if the bunches can be covered with a shingle, they will 
keep fresher much longer. The fresher the baits, and the more thor- 
oughly the baiting is done, the more cut-worms one can destroy. How- 
ever, it may sometimes happen that a sufficient quantity of such green 
succulent plants cannot be obtained early enough in the season in 
some localities. In this case, and we are not sure but in all cases, the 
poisoned bran mash can be used to the best advantage. It is easily 



204 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

made and applied at any time, is not expensive, and thus far the 
results show that it is a very attractive and effective bait. A table- 
spoonful can be quickly dropped around the base of each cabbage or 
tomato plant; small amounts may be easily scattered along the 
rows of onions and turnips, or a little dropped on a hill of corn or 
cucumbers. 

The best time to apply these poisoned baits is two or three days 
before any plants have come up or been set out in the garden. If the 
ground has been properly prepared, the worms will have had but little 
to eat for several days and they will thus seize the first opportunity to 
appease their hunger upon the baits, and wholesale destruction will 
result. The baits should always be applied at this time wherever 
cut-worms are expected. But it is not too late usually to save most of 
a crop after the pests have made their presence known by cutting off 
some of the plants. Act promptly and use the baits freely. 

For mechanical means of protecting from cut-worms, see pp. 186-7. 
Elm-leaf beetle. — Generally speaking one thorough 
and timely spraying is ample to control the elm-leaf 
beetle (Fig. 235). Use arsenate of lead, 1 lb. to 25 
gal., and make the application to the under side 
of the leaves the latter part of May or very early in 
June in New York. Occasionally, when the beetle is 
235. Elm -leaf ver y abundant, due in all probability to no spraying 
beetle, adult, in earlier years, it may be advisable to make a second 
somewhat en- application, and the same may be true when conditions 
Howard). necessitate the application earlier than when it will 

be most efficacious. This latter condition is likely to 
obtain wherever a large number of trees must be treated with inade- 
quate outfit. 

Oyster-shell scale. — This is an elongate scale or bark-louse, £ in. 
in length, resembling an oyster shell in shape and often incrusting the 
bark of apple twigs. It hibernates as minute white eggs under the old 
scales. The eggs hatch during the latter part of May or in June, the 
date depending on the season. After they hatch, the young may be 
seen as tiny whitish lice crawling about on the bark. When these 
young appear, spray with kerosene emulsion, diluted with 6 parts of 
water, or whale-oil or any good soap, 1 lb. in 4 or 5 gal. of water. 




PROTECTING PLANTS 205 

Pear insects. — The psylla is one of the most serious insects affecting 
the pear tree. It is a minute, yellowish, flat-bodied, sucking insect 
often found in the axils of the leaves and fruit early in the season. They 
develop into minute cicada-like jumping-lice. The young psyllas 
secrete a large quantity of honey-dew in which a peculiar black fungus 
grows, giving the bark a characteristic sooty appearance. There may 
be four broods annually and the trees are often seriously injured. 
After the blossoms fall, spray with kerosene emulsion, diluted with 6 
parts of water, or whale-oil soap, 1 lb. in 4 or 5 gal. of water. Repeat 
the application at intervals of 3 to 7 days until the insects are under 
control. 

The pear slug is a small, slimy, dark green larva which skeletonizes 
the leaves in June, and a second brood appears in August. Spray 
thoroughly with 1 lb. Paris green, or 4 lb. arsenate of lead, in 100 gal. 
of water. 

Potato insects. — The Colorado potato beetle, or potato-bug, emerges 
from hibernation in the spring and lays masses of orange eggs on the 
under side of the leaves. The larvae are known as "slugs " and " soft- 
shells 7 ' and cause most of the injury to the vines. Spray with Paris 
green, 2 lb. in 100 gal. of water, or arsenite of soda combined with 
bordeaux mixture. It may sometimes be necessary to use a greater 
strength of the poison, particularly on the older "slugs." 

The small black flea-beetles riddle the leaves with holes and cause 
the foliage to die. Bordeaux mixture as applied for potato blight 
protects the plants by making them repellent to the beetles. 

Raspberry, blackberry, and dewberry insects. — The greenish, spiny 
larvae of the saw-fly feed on the tender leaves in spring. Spray with 
Paris green or arsenate of lead, or apply hellebore. 

The cane-borer is a grub that burrows down through the canes, 
causing them to die. In laying her eggs, the adult beetle girdles the 
tip of the cane with a ring of punctures, causing it to wither and droop. 
In midsummer, cut off and destroy the drooping tips. 

Red spider. — Minute reddish mites on the under sides of leaves in 
greenhouses and sometimes out of doors in dry weather. Syringe off 
the plants with clear water two or three times a week, taking care not 
to drench the beds. 

Rose insects. — The green plant-lice usually work on the buds, and 



206 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

the yellow leaf -hoppers feed on the leaves. Spray, whenever necessary, 
with kerosene emulsion, diluted with 6 parts of water, or whale-oil or 
any good soap, 1 lb. in 5 or 6 gal. of water. 

The rose-chafer is often a most pernicious pest on roses, grapes, and 
other plants. The ungainly, long-legged, grayish beetles occur in sandy 
regions and often swarm into vineyards and destroy the blossoms and 
foliage. Spray thoroughly with arsenate of lead, 10 lb. in 100 gal. of 
water. Repeat the. application if necessary. (See under Rose in 
Chap. VIII.) 

San Jose scale. — This pernicious scale is nearly circular in outline 
and about the size of a small pin head, with a raised center. When 
abundant, it forms a crust on the branches and causes small red 
spots on the fruit. It multiplies with marvelous rapidity, there being 
three or four broods annually in New York, and each mother scale may 
give birth to several hundred young. The young are born alive, and 
breeding continues until late autumn when all stages are killed by the 
cold weather except the tiny half-grown black scales, many of which 
hibernate safely. Spray thoroughly in the fall after the leaves drop, 
or early in the spring before growth begins, with lime-sulfur wash, or 
miscible oil 1 gal. in 10 gal. of water. When badly infested, make two 
applications, one in the fall and another in the spring. In case of large 
old trees, 25 per cent crude oil emulsion should be applied just as 
the buds are swelling. 

In nurseries, after the trees are dug, fumigate with hydrocyanic 
acid gas, using 1 oz. of potassium cyanide for every 100 cu. ft. of 
space. Continue the fumigation from one-half to three-quarters of 
an hour. Do not fumigate the trees when they are wet, since the pres- 
ence of moisture renders them liable to injury. 

Tent-caterpillar. — The insect hibernates in the egg stage. The 
eggs are glued in ring-like brownish masses around the smaller twigs, 
where they may be easily found and destroyed. The caterpillars 
appear in early spring, devour the tender leaves, and build unsightly 
nests on the smaller branches. This pest is usually controlled by the 
treatment recommended for the codlin-moth. Destroy the nests by 
burning or by wiping out when small. Often a bad pest on apple trees. 

Violet gall-fly. — Violets grown under glass are often greatly injured 
by a very small maggot, which causes the edges of the leaves to curl, 



PROTECTING PLANTS 207 

turn yellowish, and die. The adult is a very minute fly resembling a 
mosquito. Pick off and destroy infested leaves as soon as discovered. 
Fumigation is not advised for this insect or for red-spider. 

White-fly. — The minute white-flies are common on greenhouse 
plants and often in summer on plants about gardens near greenhouses. 
The nymphs are small greenish, scale-like insects found on the under 
side of the leaves ; the adults are minute, white, mealy-winged flies. 
Spray with kerosene emulsion or whale-oil soap ; or if infesting cucum- 
bers or tomatoes, fumigate over night with hydrocyanic acid gas, 
using 1 oz. of potassium cyanide to each 1000 cu. ft. of space. (See 
page 188.) 

White grabs. — The large curved white grubs that are so trouble- 
some in lawns and strawberry fields are the larvae of the common June 
beetles. They live in the ground, feeding on the roots of grasses and 
weeds. Dig out grubs from beneath infested plants. Thorough early 
fall cultivation of land intended for strawberries will destroy many of 
the pupae. In lawns, remove the sod, destroy the grubs, and make 
new sward, when the infestation is bad. 

Treatment for some of the common plant diseases. 

The following advice (mostly adapted from Whetzel and 
Stewart) covers the most frequent types of fungous disease 
appearing to the home gardener. Many other kinds, however, 
will almost certainly attract his attention the first season if he 
looks closely. The standard remedy is bordeaux mixture; 
but because this material discolors the foliage the carbonate of 
copper is sometimes used instead. The treatments here recom- 
mended are for New York; but it should not be difficult to 
apply the dates elsewhere. The gardener must supplement all 
advice of this character with his own judgment and experience, 
and take his own risks. 

Apple scab. — Usually most evident on the fruit, forming blotches 
and scabs. Spray with bordeaux, 5-5-50 or 3-3-50 ; first, just before 
the blossoms open ; second, just as the blossoms fall ; third, 10 to 14 



208 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

days after the blossoms fall. The second spraying seems to be the most 
important. Always apply before rains, not after. 

Asparagus rust. — The most common and destructive disease of 
asparagus, producing reddish or black pustules on the stems and 
branches. Late in the fall, burn all affected plants. Fertilize liberally 
and cultivate thoroughly. During the cutting season, permit no plants 
to mature and cut all wild asparagus plants in vicinity once a week. 
Rust may be partially controlled by spraying with bordeaux, 5-5-50, 
containing a sticker of resin-sal-soda soap, but it is a difficult and ex- 
pensive operation and probably not profitable except on large acreage. 
Begin spraying after cutting as soon as new shoots are 8 to 10 in. 
high and repeat once or twice a week until about September 15. Dust- 
ing with sulfur has proved effective in California. 

Cabbage and cauliflower diseases. — Black-rot is a bacterial disease; 
the plants drop their leaves and fail to head. Practice crop rotation ; 
soak seed 15 min. in a solution made by dissolving one corrosive subli- 
mate tablet in a pint of water. Tablets may be bought at drug 
stores. 

Club-root or club-foot is a well-known disease. The parasite lives 
in the soil. Practice crop rotation. Set only healthy plants. Do not 
use manure containing cabbage refuse. If necessary to use infested 
land, apply good stone lime, 2 to 5 tons per acre. Apply at least as 
early as the autumn before planting; two to four years is better. 
Lime the seed-bed in same way. 

Carnation rust. — This disease may be recognized by the brown, 
powdery pustules on the stem and leaves. Plant only the varieties least 
affected by it. Take cuttings only from healthy plants. Spray (in 
the field, once a week; in the greenhouse, once in two weeks) with 
copper sulfate, 1 lb. to 20 gal. of water. Keep the greenhouse air as 
dry and cool as is compatible with good growth. Keep the foliage free 
from moisture. Train the plants so as to secure a free circulation of 
air among them. 

Chestnut. — The bark disease of chestnut has become very serious 
in southeastern New York, causing the bark to sink and die and killing 
the tree. Cutting out the diseased places and treating aseptically 
may be useful in light cases, but badly infected trees are incurable, 
in the present state of our knowledge. Inspection of nursery stock 



PROTECTING PLANTS 209 

and burning of affected trees is the only procedure now to be recom- 
mended. The disease is reported in New England and western New 
York. 

Chrysanthemum leaf-spot. — Spray with bordeaux, 5-5-50, every 
ten days or often enough to protect new foliage. Ammoniacal copper 
carbonate may be used, but it is not so effective. 

Cucumber diseases. — "Wilt" is a disease caused by bacteria that 
are distributed chiefly by striped cucumber beetles. Destroy the 
beetles or drive them away by thorough spraying with bordeaux, 
5-5-50. Gather and destroy all wilted leaves and plants. The most 
that can be expected is that the loss may be slightly reduced. 

Downy mildew is a serious fungous disease of the cucumber known 
among growers as "the blight." The leaves become mottled with 
yellow, show dead spots, and then dry up. Spray with bordeaux, 
5-5-50. Begin spraying when the plants begin to run, and repeat every 
10 to 14 days throughout the season. 

Currant diseases. — Leaf -spots and anthracnose are caused by two 
or three different fungi. The leaves become spotted, turn yellow, and 
fall prematurely. They may be controlled by three to five sprayings 
with bordeaux, 5-5-50, but it is doubtful whether the diseases are 
sufficiently destructive on the average to warrant so much expense. 

Gooseberry powdery mildew. — The fruit and leaves are covered 
with a dirty white growth of fungus. In setting a new plantation, 
choose a site where the land is well underdrained and where there is 
a good circulation of air. Cut away drooping branches. Keep the 
ground underneath free from weeds. Spray with potassium sulfide, ■ 
1 oz. to 2 gal. ; begin when the buds are breaking and repeat every 
7 to 10 days until the fruit is gathered. Powdery mildew is very de- 
structive to the European varieties. 

Grape black-rot. —Remove all "mummies" that cling to the arms 
at trimming time. Plow early, turning under all old mummies and 
diseased leaves. Rake all refuse under the vine into the last furrow 
and cover with the grape hoe. This cannot be too thoroughly done. 
The disease is favored by wet weather and weeds or grass in the vine- 
yard. Use surface cultivation and keep down all weeds and grass. 
Keep the vines well sprouted ; if necessary sprout twice. Spray with 
bordeaux mixture, 5-5-50, until the middle of July, after that with 



210 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

ammoniacal copper carbonate. The number of sprayings will vary 
with the season. Make the first application when the third leaf shows. 
Infections take place with each rain, and occur throughout the grow- 
ing season. The foliage should be protected by a coating of the spray 
before every rain. The new growth especially should be well sprayed. 

Hollyhock rust. — Fig. 212. Eradicate the wild mallow (Malva rotun- 
difolia). Remove all hollyhock leaves as soon as they show signs of 
rust. Spray several times with bordeaux mixture, taking care to cover 
both sides of leaves. 

Lettuce drop or rot. — This is a fungous disease often destructive 
in greenhouses, discovered by the sudden wilting of the plants. It is 
completely controlled by steam sterilization of the soil to the depth of 
two inches or more. If it is not feasible to sterilize the soil, use fresh 
soil for every crop of lettuce. 

Muskmelon diseases. — "Blight" is a very troublesome disease. 
The leaves show angular dead-brown spots, then dry up and die ; the 
fruit often fails to ripen and lacks flavor. It is caused by the same 
fungus as is the downy mildew of cucumbers. While bordeaux has 
proved effective in controlling the downy mildew on cucumbers, it 
seems to be of little value in lessening the same disease on melons. 

"Wilt" is the same as the wilt of cucumbers; same treatment is 
given. 

Peach diseases. — Brown-rot is difficult to control. Plant resistant 
varieties. Prune the trees so as to let in sunlight and air. Thin the 
fruit well. As often as possible pick and destroy all rotten fruits. 
In the fall destroy all remaining fruits. Spray with bordeaux mixture 
before the buds break, or self -boiled lime-sulfur. 

Leaf-curl is a disease in which the leaves become swollen and dis- 
torted in spring and drop during June and July (Fig. 213). Elberta is 
an especially susceptible variety. Easily and completely controlled by 
spraying the trees once, before the buds swell, with bordeaux, 5-5-50, 
or with the lime-sulfur mixtures used for San Jose scale. 

Black-spot or scab often proves troublesome in wet seasons and 
particularly in damp or sheltered situations. While this disease at- 
tacks the twigs and leaves, it is most conspicuous and injurious on the 
fruit, where it appears as dark spots or blotches. In severe attacks 
the fruit cracks. In the treatment of this disease it is of prime im- 



PROTECTING PLANTS 211 

portance to secure a free circulation of air about the fruit. Accomplish 
this by avoiding low sites, by pruning, and by removal of windbreaks. 
Spray as for leaf-curl and follow with two applications of potassium 
sulfide, 1 oz. to 3 gal., the first being made soon after the fruit is set and 
the second when the fruit is half grown. 

Yellows is a so-called "physiological disease." Cause unknown. 
Contagious, and serious in some localities. Known by the premature 
ripening of the fruit, by red streaks and spots in the flesh, and by the 
peculiar clusters of sickly, yellowish shoots that appear on the limbs 
here and there (Fig. 215). Dig out and burn diseased trees as soon as 
discovered. 

Pear diseases. — Fire-blight kills the twigs and branches, on which 
the leaves suddenly blacken and die but do not fall. It also produces 
cankers on the trunk and large limbs. Prune out blighted branches as 
soon as discovered, cutting 6 to 8 in. below the lowest evidences of 
the disease. Clean out limb and body cankers. Disinfect all large 
wounds with corrosive sublimate solution, 1 to 1000, and cover with 
coat of paint. Avoid forcing a rapid, succulent growth. Plant the 
varieties least affected. 

Pear scab is very similar to apple scab. It is very destructive to 
some varieties, as, for example, Flemish Beauty and Seckel. Spray 
three times with bordeaux, as for apple scab. 

Plum and cherry diseases. — Black-knot is a fungus, the spores of 
which are carried from tree to tree by the wind and thus spread the 
infection. Cut out and burn all knots as soon as discovered. See 
that the knots are removed from all plum and cherry trees in the 
neighborhood. 

Leaf-spot is a disease in which the leaves become covered with red- 
dish or brown spots and fall prematurely (Fig. 211) ; badly affected trees 
winterkill. Often, the dead spots drop out, leaving clear-cut holes. 
Spray with bordeaux, 5-5-50. For cherries, make four applications : 
first, just before blossoms open ; second, when fruit is free from calyx; 
third, two weeks later; fourth, two weeks after third. In plums it 
may be controlled by two or three applications of bordeaux, 5-5-50. 
Make the first one about ten days after the blossoms fall and the others 
at intervals of about three weeks. This applies to European varieties. 
Japan plums should not be sprayed with bordeaux. 



212 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Potato diseases. — There are different kinds of potato blight and rot. 
The most important are early blight and late blight — both fungous 
diseases. Early blight affects only the foliage. Late blight kills the 
foliage and often rots the tubers. Two serious troubles often mis- 
taken for blight are : (1) Tip burn, the browning of the tips and mar- 
gins of the leaves due to dry weather; and (2) flea-beetle injury, in 
which the leaves show numerous small holes and then dry up. The 
loss from blight and flea-beetles is enormous — often, one-fourth to 
one-half the crop. For blight-rot and flea-beetles spray with bordeaux, 
5-5-50. Begin when the plants are 6 to 8 in. high and repeat every 
10 to 14 days during the season, making 5 to 7 applications in all. 
Use 40 to 100 gal. per acre at each application. Under conditions 
exceptionally favorable to blight it will pay to spray as often as once 
a week. 

Scab is caused by a fungus that attacks the surface of the tubers. 
It is carried over on diseased tubers and in the soil. In general, when 
land becomes badly infested with scab, it is best to plant it with other 
crops for several years. (See page 190.) 

Raspberry diseases. — Anthracnose is very destructive to black 
raspberries, but not often injurious to the red varieties. It is detected 
by the circular or elliptical gray scab-like spots on the canes. Avoid 
taking young plants from diseased plantations. Remove all old canes 
and badly diseased new ones as soon as the fruit is gathered. Although 
spraying with bordeaux, 5-5-50, will control the malady, the treat- 
ment may not be profitable. If spraying seems advisable, make the 
first application when the new canes are 6 to 8 in. high and follow 
with two more at intervals of 10 to 14 days. 

Cane-blight or wilt is a destructive disease affecting both red and 
black varieties. Fruiting canes suddenly wilt and die. It is caused 
by a fungus which attacks the cane at some point and kills the bark 
and wood, thereby causing the parts above to die. No successful 
treatment is known. In making new settings, use only plants from 
healthy plantations. Remove the fruiting canes as soon as the fruit 
is gathered. 

Red-rust is often serious on black varieties, but does not affect red 
ones. It is the same as red rust of blackberry. Dig up and destroy 
affected plants. 



PROTECTING PLANTS 213 

Rose diseases. — Black leaf-spot is one of the commonest diseases 
of the rose. It causes the leaves to fall prematurely. Spray with 
bordeaux, 5-5-50, beginning as soon as the first spots appear on the 
leaves. Two or three applications at intervals of ten days will very 
largely control the disease. Ammoniacal copper carbonate may be 
used on roses grown under glass. Apply once a week until disease is 
under control. 

For mildew on greenhouse roses, keep the steam pipes painted with 
a paste made of equal parts lime and sulfur mixed up with water. 
The mildew is a surface-feeding fungus and is killed by the fumes of 
the sulfur. Outdoor roses that become infested with the mildew may 
be dusted with sulfur, or sprayed with a solution of potassium sulfide, 
1 oz. to 3 gal. water. Spray or dust with the sulfur two or three 
times at intervals of a week or ten days. 

Strawberry leaf-spot. — The most common and serious fungous 
disease of the strawberry; also called rust and leaf -blight. The leaves 
show spots which at first are of a deep purple color, but later enlarge 
and the center becomes gray or nearly white. The fungus passes the 
winter in the old diseased leaves that fall to the ground. In setting 
new plantations, remove all diseased leaves from the plants before they 
are taken to the field. Soon after growth begins, spray the newly set 
plants with bordeaux, 5-5-50. Make three or four additional spray- 
ings during the season. The following spring, spray just before blos- 
soming and again 10 to 14 days later. If the bed is to be fruited a 
second time, mow the plants and burn over the beds as soon as the 
fruit is gathered. Plant resistant varieties. 

Tomato leaf -spot. — The distinguishing character of this disease is that 
it begins on the lower leaves and works towards the top, killing the foliage 
as it goes. It is controlled with difficulty because it is carried over 
winter in the diseased leaves and tops that fall to the ground. When 
setting out plants, pinch off all the lower leaves that touch the ground ; 
also any leaves that show suspicious-looking dead-spots. The trouble 
often starts in the seed-bed. Spray plants very thoroughly with 
bordeaux, 5-5-50, beginning as soon as the plants are set out. Stake 
and tie up for greater convenience in spraying. Spray under side of 
the leaves. Spray every week or ten days. 



CHAPTER VII 

THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — THE CLASSES OF 
PLANTS, AND LISTS 

In choosing the kinds of plants for the main grounds the 
gardener should carefully distinguish two categories, — those 
plants to compose the structural masses and design of the place, 
and those that are to be used for mere ornament. The chief 
merits to be sought in the former are good foliage, pleasing 
form and habit, shades of green, and color of winter twigs. 
The merits of the latter lie chiefly in flowers or colored foliage. 

Each of these categories should be again divided. Of plants 
for the main design, there might be discussion of trees for a 
windbreak, of trees for shade; of shrubs for screens or heavy 
plantings, for the lighter side plantings, and for incidental 
masses about the buildings or on the lawn; and perhaps also of 
vines for porches and arbors, of evergreens, of hedges, and of 
the heavier herbaceous masses. 

Plants used for mere embellishment or ornamentation may 
be ranged again into categories for permanent herbaceous 
borders, for display beds, ribbon edgings, annuals for tempo- 
rary effects, foliage beds, plants for adding color and emphasis 
to the shrubbery masses, plants desired to be grown as single 
specimens or as curiosities, and plants for porch-boxes and 
window-gardens. • 

Having now briefly suggested the uses of the plants, we shall 
proceed to discuss them in reference to the making of home 
grounds. This chapter contains a brief consideration of 

214 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 215 

Planting for immediate effect, 

The use of u foliage 1 , trees and shrubs, 

Windbreaks and screens, 

The making of hedges, 

The borders, 

The flower-beds, 

Aquatic and bog plants, 

Rockeries and alpine plants; 

and then it runs into nine sub-chapters, as follows : — 

1. Plants for carpet-beds, p. 234; 

2. The annual plants, p. 241; 

3. Hardy herbaceous perennials, p. 260; 

4. Bulbs and tubers, p. 281; 

5. The shrubbery, p. 290; 

6. Climbing plants, p. 307; 

7. Trees for lawns and streets, p. 319; 

8. Coniferous evergreen trees and shrubs, p. 331; 

9. Window-gardens, p. 336. 

And then, in Chapter VIII, the particular cultures of plants 
needing special care are briefly discussed. 

Planting for immediate effect. 

It is always legitimate, and, in fact, desirable, to plant for 
immediate effect. One may plant very thickly of rapid-grow- 
ing trees and shrubs for this purpose. It is a fact, however, 
that very rapid-growing trees usually lack strong or artistic 
character. Other and better trees should be planted with them 
and the featureless kinds be gradually removed. (Page 41.) 

The effect of a new place may be greatly heightened by a dex- 
terous use of annuals and other herbaceous stuff in the shrub 
plantations. Until the shrubbery covers the ground, tempo- 
rary plants may be grown among them. Subtropical beds 



216 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

may give a very desirable temporary finish to places that are 
pretentious enough to make them seem in keeping. 

Very rough, hard, sterile, and stony banks may sometimes 
be covered with coltsfoot (Tussilago Far far a), sacaline, Rubus 
cratcegifolius, comfrey, and various wild growths that persist in 
similar places in the neighborhood. 

However much the planter may plan for immediate effects, 
the beauty of trees and shrubs comes with maturity and age, 
and this beauty is often delayed, or even obliterated, by shear- 
ing and excessive heading-back. At first, bushes are stiff and 
erect, but when they attain their full character, they usually 
droop or roll over to meet the sward. Some bushes make 
mounds of green much sooner than others that may even be 
closely related. Thus the common yellow-bell (Forsythia vir- 
dissima) remains stiff and hard for some years, whereas F. 
suspensa makes a rolling heap of green in two or three years. 
Quick informal effects can also be secured by the use of Hall's 
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera Halliana of nurserymen), an 
evergreen in the South, and holding its leaves until midwinter 
or later in the North. It may be used for covering a rock, a 
pile of rubbish, a stump (Fig. 236), to fill a corner against a 
foundation, or it may be trained on a porch or arbor. There 
is a form with yellow- veined leaves. Rosa Wichuraiana and 
some of the dewberries are useful for covering rough places. 

Many vines that are commonly used for porches and ar- 
bors may be employed also for the borders of shrub-planta- 
tions and for covering rough banks and rocks, quickly giving a 
finish to the cruder parts of the place. Such vines, among 
others, are various kinds of clematis, Virginia creeper, actinidia, 
akebia, trumpet creeper, periploca, bitter-sweet {Solarium 
Dulcamara), wax- work (Celastrus scandens). 

Of course, v very good immediate effects may be secured by 
very close planting (page 222), but the homesteader must not 
neglect to thin out these plantations when the time comes. 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 217 




236. Stump covered with Japanese honeysuckle. 



218 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

The use of "foliage" trees and shrubs. 

There is always a temptation to use too freely of the trees 
and shrubs that are characterized by abnormal or striking 
foliage. The subject is discussed in its artistic bearings on 
pages 40 and 41. 

As a rule, the yellow-leaved, spotted-leaved, variegated, and 
other abnormal "foliage" plants are less hardy and less reliable 
than the green-leaved or " natural" forms. They usually re- 
quire more care, if they are kept in vigorous and seemly condi- 
tion. Some marked exceptions to this are noted in the lists of 
trees and shrubs. 

There are some plants of striking foliage, however, that are 
perfectly reliable, but they are usually not of the ' horticultu- 
ral variety" class, their characteristics being normal to the spe- 
cies. Some of the silver or white-leaved poplars, for example, 
produce the most striking contrasts of foliage, particularly if set 
near darker trees, and for this reason they are much desired 
by many planters. Bolle's poplar (Populus Bolleana of the nur- 
series) is one of the best of these trees. Its habit is something 
like that of the Lombardy. The upper surface of the deeply 
lobed leaves is dark dull green, while the under surface is almost 
snowy white. Such emphatic trees as this should generally 
be partially obscured by planting them amongst other trees, so 
that they appear to mix with the other foliage; or else they 
should be seen at some distance. Other varieties of the com- 
mon white poplar or abele are occasionally useful, although 
most of them sprout badly and may become a nuisance. But 
the planting of these immodest trees is so likely to be overdone 
that one scarcely dare recommend them, although, when skill- 
fully used, they may be made to produce most excellent ef- 
fects. If any reader has a particular fondness for trees of this 
class (or any others with woolly-white foliage) and if he has 
only an ordinary city lot or farm-yard to ornament, let him 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 219 

reduce his desires to a single tree, and then if that tree is planted 
in the interior of a group of other trees, no harm can result. 

Windbreaks and screens. 

A shelter-belt for the home grounds is often placed at the 
extreme edge of the home yard, toward the heaviest or pre- 
vailing wind. It may be a dense plantation of evergreens. If 
so, the Norway spruce is one of the best for general purposes 
in the northeastern states. For a lower belt the arbor vitse is 
excellent. Some of the pines, as the Scotch or Austrian, and 
the native white pine, are also to be advised, particularly if the 
belt is at some distance from the residence. As a rule, the 
coarser the tree the farther it should be placed from the house. 

The common deciduous trees of the region (as elm, maple, 
box-elder) may be planted in a row or rows for windbreaks. 
Good temporary shelter belts are secured by poplars and large 
willows. On the prairies and far north the laurel willow 
(Salix laurifolia of the trade) is excellent. Where snow blows 
very badly, two lines of breaks may be planted three to six 
rods apart, so that the inclosed lane may catch the drift; this 
method is employed in prairie regions. 

Persons may desire to use the break as a screen to hide un- 
desirable objects. If these objects are of a permanent charac- 
ter, as a barn or an unkempt property, evergreen trees should 
be used. For temporary screens, any of the very large-growing 
herbaceous plants may be employed. Very excellent subjects 
are sunflowers, the large-growing nicotianas, castor beans, large 
varieties of Indian corn, and plants of like growth. Excellent 
screens are sometimes made with vines on a trellis. 

Very efficient summer screens may be made with ailanthus, 
paulownia, basswood, sumac, and other plants that tend to 
throw up very vigorous shoots from the base. After these 
plants have been set a year or two, they are cut back nearly to 
the ground in winter or spring, and strong shoots are thrown 



220 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

up with great luxuriance during the summer, ' giving a dense 
screen and presenting a semi-tropical effect. For such purposes, 
the roots should be planted only two or three feet apart. If, 
after a time, the roots become so crowded that the shoots are 
weak, some of the plants may be removed. Top-dressing the 
area every fall with manure will tend to make the ground rich 
enough to afford a very heavy summer growth. (See Fig. 50.) 

The making of hedges. 

Hedges are much less used in this country than in Europe, 
and for several reasons. Our climate is dry, and most hedges 
do not thrive so well here, as there; labor is high-priced, and 
the trimming is therefore likely to be neglected; our farms are 
so large that much fencing is required; timber and wire are 
cheaper than live hedges. 

However, hedges are used with good effect about the home 
grounds. In order to secure a good ornamental hedge, it is 
necessary to have a thoroughly well-prepared deep soil, to 
set the plants close, and to shear them at least twice every year. 
For evergreen hedges the most serviceable plant in general is 
the arbor vitse. The plants may be set at distances of 1 to 2^ 
feet apart. For coarser hedges, the Norway spruce is used; 
and for still coarser ones, the Scotch and Austrian pines. In 
California the staple conifer hedge is made of Monterey cypress. 
For choice evergreen hedges about the grounds, particularly 
outside the northern. states, some of the retinosporas are very 
useful. One of the most satisfactory of all coniferous plants 
for hedges is the common hemlock, which stands shearing well 
and makes a very soft and pleasing mass. The plants may be 
set from 2 to 4 feet apart. 

Other plants that hold their leaves and are good for hedges 
are the common box and the privets. Box hedges are the best 
for very low borders about walks and flower-beds. The dwarf 
variety can be kept down to a height of 6 inches to a foot for 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 221 

any number of years. The larger-growing varieties make ex- 
cellent hedges 3, 4, and 5 feet high. The ordinary privet or 
prim holds its leaves well into winter in the North. The so- 
called Californian privet holds its leaves rather longer and 
stands better along the seashore. The mahonia makes a low, 
loose hedge or edging in locations where it will thrive. Pyra- 
cantha is also to be recommended where hardy. In the south- 
ern states, nothing is better than Citrus trifoliata. This is hardy 
even farther north than Washington in very favored localities. 
In the South, Prunus Caroliniana is also used for hedges. Salt- 
bush hedges are frequent in California. 

For hedges of deciduous plants, the most common species 
are the buckthorn, Japan quince, the European hawthorn 
and other thorns, tamarix, osage orange, honey locust, and 
various kinds of roses. Osage orange has been the most used 
for farm hedges. For home grounds, Berberis Thuribergii 
makes an excellent free hedge; also Spircea Thunbergii and 
other spireas. The common Rosa rugosa makes an attractive 
free hedge. 

Hedges should be trimmed the year after they are set, 
although they should not be sheared very closely until they 
reach the desired or permanent height. Thereafter they should 
be cut into the desired form in spring or fall, or both. If the 
plants are allowed to grow for a year or two without trimming, 
they lose their lower leaves and become open and straggly. 
Osage orange and some other plants are plashed; that is, 
the plants are set at an angle rather than perpendicularly, and 
they are wired together obliquely in such a way that they 
make an impenetrable barrier just above the surface of the 
ground. 

For closely clipped or sheared hedges, the best plants are 
arbor vitse, retinospora, hemlock, Norway spruce, privet, buck- 
thorn, box, osage orange, pyracantha, Citrus trifoliata. The 
pyracantha (Pyracantha coccinea) is an evergreen shrub allied 



222 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

to Crataegus, of which it is sometimes considered to be a species. 
It is also sometimes referred to cotoneaster. Although hardy 
in protected places in the North, it is essentially a bush of the 
middle and southern latitudes, and of California. It has per- 
sistent foliage and red berries. Var. Lalandi has orange-red 
berries. 

The borders. 

The word " border" is used to designate the heavy or con- 
tinuous planting about the boundaries of a place, or along the 
walks and drives, or against the buildings, in distinction from 
planting on the lawn or in the interior spaces. A border re- 
ceives different designations, depending on the kinds of plants 
that are grown therein: it may be a shrub-border, a flower- 
border, a hardy border for native and other plants, a vine- 
border, and the like. 

There are three rules for the choosing of plants for a hardy 
border: choose (1) those that you like best, (2) those that are 
adapted to the climate and soil, (3) those that are in place or 
in keeping with that part of the grounds. 

The earth for the border should be fertile. The whole ground 
should be plowed or spaded and the plants set irregularly in the 
space; or the back row may be set in a line. If the border is 
composed of shrubs, and is large, a horse cultivator may be run 
in and out between the plants for the first two or three years, 
since the shrubs will be set 2 to 4 feet apart. Ordinarily, 
however, the tilling is done with hand tools. After the plants 
are once established and the border is filled, it is best to dig up 
as little as possible, for the digging disturbs the roots and breaks 
the crowns. It is usually best to pull out the weeds and 
give the border a top-dressing each fall of well-rotted manure. 
If the ground is not very rich, an application of ashes or some 
commercial fertilizer may be given from time to time. 

The border should be planted so thick as to allow the plants 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 223 

to run together, thereby giving one continuous effect. Most 
shrubs should be set 3 feet apart. Things as large as lilacs may 
go 4 feet and sometimes even more. Common herbaceous 
perennials, as bleeding heart, delphiniums, hollyhocks, and the 
like, should go from 12 to 18 inches. On the front edge of the 
border is a very excellent place for annual and tender flowering 
plants. Here, for example, one may make a fringe of asters, 
geraniums, coleus, or anything else he may choose. (Chap. II.) 

Into the heavy borders about the boundaries of the place the 
autumn leaves will drift and afford an excellent mulch. If 
these borders are planted with shrubs, the leaves may be left 
there to decay, and not be raked off in the spring. 

The general outline of the border facing the lawn should be 
more or less wavy or irregular, particularly if it is on the 
boundary of the place. Alongside a walk or drive the margins 
may follow the general directions of the walk or drive. 

In making borders of perennial flowers the most satisfactory 
results are secured if a large clump of each kind or variety is 
grown. The herbaceous border is one of the most flexible parts 
of grounds, since it has no regular or formal design. Allow 
ample space for each perennial root, — often as much as three 
or four square feet, — and then if the space is not filled the 
first year or two, scatter over the area seeds of poppies, sweet 
peas, asters, gilias, alyssum, or other annuals. Figures 237-239, 
from Long (" Popular Gardening," i., 17, 18), suggest methods 
of making such borders. They are on a scale of ten feet to the 
inch. The entire surface is tilled, and the irregular diagrams 
designate the sizes of the clumps. The diagrams containing 
no names are to be filled with bulbs, annuals, and tender plants, 
if desired. 

It must not be supposed, however, that one cannot have a 
border unless he has wide marginal spaces about his grounds. 
It is surprising how many things one can grow in an old fence. 
Perennials that grow in fence-rows in fields ought also to grow 



224 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 





THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 225 



in similar boundaries on the home grounds. Some of 
garden annuals will thrive alongside a fence, particularly if 
fence does not shut off too much 
light; and many vines (both per- 
ennial and annual) will cover it 
effectively. Among annuals, the 
large-seeded, quick-germinating, 
rapid-growing kinds will do best. 
Sunflower, sweet pea, morning glory, 
Japanese hop, zinnia, marigold, am- 
aranths, four o'clock, are some of 
the kinds that will hold their own. 
If the effort is made to grow plants 
in such places, it is important to 
give them all the advantage pos- 
sible early in the season, so that 
they will get well ahead of the grass 
and weeds. Spade up the ground 
all you can. Add a little quick- 
acting fertilizer. It is best to start 
the plants in pots or small boxes, so 
that they will be in advance of the 
weeds when they are set out. 

The flower-beds. 

We must remember to distinguish 
two uses of flowers, — their part 
in a landscape design or picture, 
and their part in a bed or separate 
garden for bloom. We now consider 
the flower-bed proper; and we in- 
clude in the flower-bed such " foli- 
age" plants as coleus, celosia, 
croton, and canna, although the 

Q 



the 
the 




226 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

main object of the flower-bed is to produce an abundance 
of flowers. 

In making a flower-bed, see that the ground is well drained; 
that the subsoil is deep; that the land is in a mellow and friable 
condition, and that it is fertile. Each fall it may have a mulch 
of rotted manure or of leafmold, which may be spaded under 
deeply in the spring; or the land may be spaded and left rough 
in the fall, which is a good practice when the soil has much clay. 
Make the flower-beds as broad as possible, so that the roots of 
the grass running in from either side will not meet beneath the 
flowers and rob the beds of food and moisture. It is well to 
add a little commerc al fertilizer each fall or spring. 

Although it is well to emphasize making the ground fertile, it 
must be remembered (as indicated at the close of Chap. IV) that 
it can easily be made too rich for such plants as we desire 
to keep within certain stature and for those from which we 
wish an abundance of bloom in a short season. In over-rich 
ground, nasturtiums and some other plants not only "run to 
vine," but the bloom lacks brilliancy. .When it is the leaf 
and vegetation that is wanted, there is little danger of making 
the ground too rich, although it is possible to make the plant 
so succulent and sappy that it becomes sprawly or breaks 
down; and other plants may be crippled and crowded out. 

There are various styles of flower-planting. The mixed 
border, planted with various hardy plants, and extending along 
either side of the garden- walk, was popular years ago; and, 
with modifications in position, form, and extent, has been a 
popular attachment to home grounds during the past few years. 
To produce the best effects the plants should be set close 
enough to cover the ground; and the selection should be such 
as to afford a continuity of bloom. 

The mixed flower-bed may contain only tender summer- 
blooming plants, in which case the bed, made up mostly of an- 
nuals, does not purport to express the entire season. 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 227 

In distinction from the mixed or non-homogeneous flower^ 
bed are the various forms of " bedding," in which plants are 
massed for the purpose of making a connected and homogeneous 
bold display of form or color. The bedding may be for the 
purpose of producing a strong effect of white, of blue, or of 
red; or of ribbon-like lines and edgings; or of luxurious 
and tropical expression; or to display boldly the features 
of a particular plant, as the tulip, the hyacinth, the chrysan- 
themum. 

In ribbon-bedding, flowering or foliage plants are arranged 
in ribbon-like lines of harmoniously contrasting colors, com- 
monly accompanying walks or drives, but also suitable for 
marking limits, or for the side borders. In such beds, as well 
as the others, the tallest plants will be placed at the back, if 
the bed is to be seen from one side only, and the lowest at the 
front. If it is to be seen from both sides, then the tallest will 
stand in the center. 

A modification of the ribbon-line, bringing the contrasting 
colors together into masses forming circles or other patterns, is 
known as " massing," or " massing in color," and sometimes is 
spoken of as " carpet-bedding." 

Carpet-bedding, however, belongs more properly to a style 
of bedding in which plants of dense, low, spreading habit — 
chiefly foliage plants, with leaves of different forms and colors 
— are planted in patterns not unlike carpets or rugs. It is 
often necessary to keep the plants sheared into limits. Carpet- 
bedding is such a specialized form of plant-growing that we 
shall treat of it separately (page 234). 

Beds containing the large foliage plants, for producing tropi- 
cal effects, are composed, in the main, of subjects that are 
allowed to develop naturally. In the lower and more orderly 
massing, the plants are arranged not only in circles and patterns 
according to habit and height, but the selection is such that 
some or all may be kept within proper limits by pinching or 



228 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

trimming. Circles or masses composed of flowering plants 
usually cannot be cut back at the top, so that the habit of the 
plants must be known before planting; and the plants must be 
placed in parts of the bed where trimming will not be necessary. 
They may be clipped at the sides, however, in case the branches 
or leaves of one mass or line in the pattern grow beyond their 
proper bounds. 

The numbers of good annuals and perennials that may be 
used in flower-beds are now very large, and one may have a wide 
choice. Various lists from which one may choose are given 
at the end of this chapter; but special comment may be made 
on those most suitable for bedding, and in its modification in 
ribbon-work and sub-tropical massing. 

Bedding effects. 

Bedding is ordinarily a temporary species of planting; that 
is, the bed is filled anew each year. However, the term may 
be used to designate a permanent plantation in which the 
plants are heavily massed so as to give one continuous or em- 
phatic display of form or color. Some of the best permanent 
bedding masses are made of the various hardy ornamental 
grasses, as eulalias, arundo, and the like. The color effects in 
bedding may be secured with flowers or with foliage. 

Summer bedding is often made by perennial plants that are 
carried over from the preceding year, or better, that are propa- 
gated for that particular purpose in February and March. 
Such plants as geranium, coleus, alyssum, scarlet salvia, agera- 
tum, and heliotrope may be used for these beds. It is a com- 
mon practice to use geranium plants which are in bloom during 
the winter for bedding out during the summer, but such plants 
are tall and ungainly in form and have expended the greater 
part of their energies. It is better to propagate new plants by 
taking cuttings or slips late in the winter and setting out young 
fresh vigorous subjects. (Page 30.) 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 229 

Some bedding is very temporary in its effect. Especially 
is this true of spring bedding, in which the subjects are tulips, 
hyacinths, crocuses, or other early-flowering bulbous plants. 
In this case, the ground is usually occupied later in the season 
by other plants. These later plants are commonly annuals, the 
seeds of which are sown amongst the bulbs as soon as the season 
is far enough advanced; or the annuals may be started in boxes 
and the plants transplanted amongst the bulbs as soon as the 
weather is fit. 

Many of the low-growing and compact continuous-flowering 
annuals are excellent for summer bedding effects. There is a 
list of some useful material for this purpose on page 249. 

Plants for subtropical effects (Plates IV and V) . 

The number of plants suitable to produce a semitropical 
mass or for the center or back of a group, which may be readily 
grown from seed, is limited. Some of the best kinds are in- 
cluded below. 

It will often be worth while to supplement these with others, 
to be had at the florists,, such as caladiums, screw pines, Ficus 
elastica, araucarias, Musa Ensete, palms, dracenas, crotons, and 
others. Dahlias and tuberous begonias are also useful. About 
a pond the papyrus and lotus may be used. 

Practically all the plants used for this style of gardening are 
liable to injury from winds, and therefore the beds should be 
placed in a protected situation. The palms and some other 
greenhouse stuff do better if partially shaded. 

In the use of such plants, there are opportunities for the 
exercise of the nicest taste. A gross feeder, as the ricinus, in 
the midst o a bed of delicate annuals, is quite out of place; and 
a stately, royal-looking plant among humbler kinds often makes 
the latter look common, when if headed with a chief of their 
own rank all would appear to the best advantage. 

Some of the plants much used for subtropical bedding, and 



230 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

often started for that purpose in a greenhouse or coldframe, 
are: — 

Acalypha. 

Amarantus. 

Aralia Sieboldii (properly Fatsia Japonica). 

Bamboos. 

Caladium and colocasia. 

Canna. 

Coxcomb, particularly the new "foliage" kinds. 

Grasses, as eulalias, pampas-grass, pennisetums. 

Gunnera. 

Maize, the striped form. 

Ricinus or castor bean. 

Scarlet sage. 

Wigandia. 

Aquatic and bog plants. 

Some of the most interesting and ornamental of all plants 
grow in water and in wet places. It is possible to make an 
aquatic flower-garden, and also to use water and bog plants 
as a part of the landscape work. 

The essential consideration in the growing of aquatics is the 
making of the pond. It is possible to grow water-lilies in tubs 
and half barrels; but this does not provide sufficient room, 
and the plant-food is likely soon to be exhausted and the plants 
to fail. The small quantity of water is likely also to become 
foul. 

The best ponds are those made by good mason work, for the 
water does not become muddy by working among the plants. 
In cement ponds it is best to plant the roots of water-lilies in 
shallow boxes of earth (1 foot deep and 3 or 4 feet square), 
or to hold the earth in mason-work compartments. 

Usually the ponds or tanks are not cement lined. In some 
soils a simple excavation will hold water, but it is usually 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 231 

necessary to give the tank some kind of lining. Clay is often 
used. The bottom and sides of the tank are pounded firm, 
and then covered with 3 to 6 in. of clay, which has been 
kneaded in the hands, or pounded and worked in a box. 
Handfuls or shovelfuls of the material are thrown forcibly upon 
the earth, the operator being careful not to walk upon the work. 
The clay is smoothed by means of a spade or maul, and it is then 
sanded. 

The water for the lily pond may be derived from a brook, 
spring, well, or a city water supply. The plants will thrive in 
any water that is used for domestic purposes. It is important 
that the water does not become stagnant and a breeding place 
for mosquitoes. There should be an outlet in the nature of a 
stand-pipe, that will control the depth of water. It is not neces- 
sary that the water run through the pond or tank rapidly, but 
only that a slow change take place. Sometimes the water is 
allowed to enter through a fountain-vase, in which water plants 
(such as parrot's feather) may be grown (Plate X). 

In all ponds, a foot or 15 in. is sufficient depth of water 
to stand above the crowns of the plants; and the greatest depth 
of water should not be more than 3 ft. for all kinds of water- 
lilies. Half this depth is often sufficient. The soil should be 
1 to 2 ft. deep, and very rich. Old cow manure may be mixed 
with rich loam. For the nympheas or water-lilies, 9 to 12 in. 
of soil is sufficient. Most of the foreign water-lilies are not 
hardy, but some of them may be grown with ease if the pond is 
covered in winter. 

Roots of hardy water-lilies may be planted as soon as the 
pond is clear of frost, but the tender kinds (which are also to 
be taken up in the fall) should not be planted till it is time to 
plant out geraniums. Sink the roots into the mud so that they 
are just buried, and weight them down with a stone or clod. 
The nelumbium, or so-called Egyptian lotus, should not be 
transplanted till growth begins to show in the roots in the 



232 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

spring. The roots are cleaned of decayed parts and covered 
with about 3 in. of soil. A foot or so of water is sufficient for 
lotus ponds. The roots of Egyptian lotus must not freeze. 
The roots of all water-lily-like plants should be frequently 
divided and renewed. 

With hardy aquatics, the water and roots are allowed to 
remain naturally over winter. In very cold climates, the pond 
is protected by throwing boards over it and covering with hay, 
straw, or evergreen boughs. It is well to supply an additional 
depth of water as a further protection. 

As a landscape feature, the pond should have a background, 
or setting, and its edges should be relieved, at least on sides and 
back, by plantings of bog plants. In permanent ponds of large 
size, plantings of willows, osiers, and other shrubbery may set 
off the area to advantage. Many of the wild marsh and pond 
plants are excellent for marginal plantings, as sedges, cat-tail, 
sweet-flag (there is a striped-leaved form), and some of the 
marsh grasses. Japanese iris makes an excellent effect in such 
places. For summer planting in or near ponds, caladium, 
umbrella-plant, and papyrus are good. 

If there is a stream, "branch," or "run" through the place, it 
may often be made one of the most attractive parts of the 
premises by colonizing bog plants along it. 

Rockeries, and alpine plants. 

A rockery is a part of the place in which plants are grown in 
pockets between rocks. It is a flower-garden conception rather 
than a landscape feature, and therefore should be at one side 
or in the rear of the premises. Primarily, the object of using the 
rocks is to provide better conditions in which certain plants 
may grow; sometimes the rocks are employed to hold a springy 
or sloughing bank and the plants are used to cover the rocks; 
now and then a person wants a rock or a pile of stones in his 
yard, as another person would want a piece of statuary or a 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 233 

sheared evergreen. Sometimes the rocks are natural to the 
place and cannot well be removed; in this case the planning and 
planting should be such as to make them part of the picture. 

The real rock-garden, however, is a place in which to grow 
plants. The rocks are secondary. The rocks should not ap- 
pear to be placed for display. If one is making a collection of 
rocks, he is pursuing geology rather than gardening. 

Yet many of the so-called rock-gardens are mere heaps of 
stones, placed where it seems to be convenient to pile stones 
rather than where the stones may improve conditions for the 
growing of plants. 

The plants that will naturally grow in rock pockets are 
those requiring a continuous supply of root moisture and a cool 
atmosphere. To place a rockery on a sand bank in the burning 
sun is therefore entirely out of character. 

Rock-garden plants are those of cool woods, of bogs, and par- 
ticularly of high mountains and alpine regions. It is generally 
understood that a rock-garden is an alpine-garden, although 
this is not necessarily so. 

In this country alpine-gardening is little known, largely be- 
cause of our hot dry summers and falls. But if one has a rather 
cool exposure and an unfailing water supply, he may succeed 
fairly well with many of the alpines, or at least with the semi- 
alpines. Most of the alpines are low and often tufted plants, 
and bloom in a spring temperature. In our long hot seasons, 
the alpine-garden may be expected to be dormant during much 
of the summer, unless other rock-loving plants are colonized 
in it. Alpine plants are of many kinds. They are specially to 
be found in the genera arenaria, silene, diapensia, primula, 
saxifraga, arabis, aubrietia, veronica, campanula, gentiana. 
They comprise a good number of ferns and many little heaths. 

A good rock-garden of any kind does not have the stones piled 
merely on the surface; they are sunken well into the ground 
and are so placed that there are deep chambers or channels that 



234 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

hold moisture and into which roots may penetrate. The pock- 
ets are filled with good fibrous moisture-holding earth, and 
often a little sphagnum or other moss is added. It must then 
be arranged so that the pockets never dry out. 

Rock-gardens are usually failures, because they violate these 
very simple elementary principles; but even when the soil con- 
ditions and moisture conditions are good, the habits of the 
rock plants must be learned, and this requires thoughtful ex- 
perience. Rock-gardens cannot be generally recommended. 

1. Plants for Carpet-beds 
(By Ernest Walker) 

The beauty of the carpet-bed lies largely in its unity, sharp 
contrast and harmony of color, elegance — often simplicity — 
of design, nicety of execution, and the continued distinctness of 
outline due to scrupulous care. A generous allowance of green- 
sward on all sides contributes greatly to the general effect, — 
in fact it is indispensable. 

Whatever place is chosen for the bed, it should be in a sunny 
exposure. This, nor any kind of bed, should not be planted 
near large trees, as their greedy roots will rob the soil not only 
of its food, but of moisture. The shade also will be a menace. 
As the plants stand so thick, the soil should be well enriched, and 
spaded at least a foot deep. In planting, a space of at least six 
inches must be left between the outer row of plants and the 
edge of the grass. The very style of the bed requires that lines 
be straight, the curves uniform, and that they be kept so by 
the frequent and careful use of the shears. During dry periods 
watering will be necessary. The beds, however, should not be 
watered in the hot sunshine. Foliage plants are most in use, 
and are the ones which will prove the most satisfactory in the 
hands of the inexperienced, as they submit to severe clipping 
and are thus more easily managed. 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 235 

The following list will be helpful to the beginner. It embraces 
a number of the plants in common use for carpet-bedding, 
although not all of them. The usual heights are given in inches. 
This, of course, in different soils and under different treatment is 
more or less a variable quantity. The figures in parentheses 
suggest in inches suitable distances for planting in the row when 
immediate effects are expected. A verbena in rich soil will in 
time cover a circle three feet or more in diameter; other plants 
mentioned spread considerably; but when used in the carpet- 
bed, they must be planted close. One cannot wait for them to 
grow. The aim is to cover the ground at once. Although 
planted thick in the row, it will be desirable to leave more room 
between the rows in case of spreading plants like the verbena. 
Most of them, however, need little if any more space between 
the rows than is indicated by the figures given. In the list 
those plants that bear free clipping are marked with an 
asterisk (*) : 

Lists for carpet-beds. 

The figure immediately following the name of plant- indicates its height, 
the figures in parentheses the distance for planting, in inches. 

1. Low-growing Plants 

A. Foliage Plants. 

Crimson. — * Alternanthera amcena spectabilis, 6 (4-6). 

Alternanthera paronychioides major, 5 (3-6). 
Alternanthera versicolor, 5 (3-6). 
Yellow. — Alternanthera aurea nana, 6 (4-6) . 
Gray, or whitish. — Echeveria secunda, glauca, 1| (3-4). 
Echeveria metallica, 9 (6-8). 
Cineraria maritima, 15 (9-12). 
Sempervivum Calif ornicum, 1| (3-4). 
Thymus argenteus, 6 (4-6). 
Bronze brown. — Oxalis tropseoloides, 3 (3-4). 



236 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Variegated (white and green) . — 

Geranium Mme. Salleroi, 6 (6-8). 
*Sweet alyssum, variegated, 6 (6-9) . 
B. Flowering Plants. 

Scarlet. — Phlox Drummondii, Dwarf, 6 (4-6) . 

Cuphea platycentra, Cigar Plant, 6 (4-6). 
White. — Sweet alyssum, Little Gem, 4 (4-6). 
Sweet alyssum, common, 6 (6-8) . 
Phlox Drummondii, Dwarf, 6 (4-6) . 
Blue. — Lobelia, Crystal Palace, 6 (4-6) . 
Ageratum, Dwarf Blue, 6 (6-8) . 

2. Plants of Taller Growth 

A. Foliage Plants. 

Crimson. — *Coleus Verschaffeltii, 24 (9-12). 

*Achyranthes Lindeni, 18 (8-12). 

*Achyranthes Gilsoni, 12 (8-12). 

*Achyranthes Verschaffeltii, 12 (8-12). 

*Acalypha tricolor, 12-18 (12). 
Yellow. — *Coleus, Golden Bedder, 24 (9-12). 

*Achyranthes, aurea reticulata, 12 (8-12). 

Golden feverfew (Pyrethrum parthenifolium au- 
reum), (6-8). 

Bronze geranium, 12 (9). 
Silvery white. — Dusty miller (Centaurea gymnocarpa), 12 (8-12) 

*Santolina Chamsecyparissus incana, 6-12 (6-8). 

Geranium, Mountain of Snow, 12 (6-9). 
Variegated (white and green) . — 

*Stevia serrata var., 12-18 (8-12). 

Phalaris arundinacea var. (grass), 24 (4-8). 

Cyperus alternifolius var., 24-30 (8-12). 
Bronze. — *Acalypha marginata, 24 (12). 

B. Flowering Plants. 

Scarlet. — Salvia splendens, 36 (12-18). 
Geraniums, 24 (12). 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 237 

Cuphea tricolor (C. Llavse), 18 (8-12). 
Dwarf nasturtium (Tropaeolum), 12-18 (12-18). 
Begonia, Vernon, 12 (6-8). 
Verbenas, 12 (6-12). 
Phlox Drummondii, Dwarf, 6 (4-6). 
White. — Salvia splendens, White-flowered, 36 (12-18). 
Geraniums, 18-24 (12). 
Lantana, Innocence, 18-24 (8-12). 
Lantana, Queen Victoria, 24 (8-12). 
Verbena, Snow Queen, 12 (6-12). 
Ageratum, White, 9 (6-9). 
Phlox Drummondii, Dwarf, 6 (4-6). 
Pink. — Petunia, Countess of Ellesmere, 18 (8-12). 
Lantana, 24 (8-12). 
Verbena, Beauty of Oxford, 6 (8-12). 
Phlox Drummondii, Dwarf, 6 (4-6). 
Yellow. — Dwarf nasturtium, 12 (12-18). 

Anthemis coronaria fl. pi., 12 (6-8). 
Blue. — Ageratum Mexicanum, 12 (6-8) . 
Verbenas, 6 (6-12). 
Heliotrope, Queen of Violets, 18 (12-18). 

' In Fig. 240 are shown a few designs suitable for carpet-beds. 
They are intended merely to be suggestive, not to be copied pre- 
cisely. The simple forms and component parts of the more 
elaborate beds may be arranged into other designs. Likewise 
the arrangement of plants, which will be mentioned as suitable 
for making a given pattern, is only one of many possible com- 
binations. The idea is merely to bring out the design dis- 
tinctly. To accomplish this it is only necessary to use plants of 
contrasting color or growth. To illustrate how varied are the 
arrangements that may be used, and how easily different effects 
are produced with a single design, several different combina- 
tions of color for the bed No. 1 will be mentioned: 

No. 1. — Arrangement A: Outside, Alternanthera amcena spec- 
tabilis; inside, Stevia serrata variegata. B: lobelia, Crystal 



238 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




240. Designs for carpet-beds. 

Palace; Mme. Salleroi geranium. C: lobelia, Crystal Palace 
scarlet dwarf phlox. D: sweet alyssum; petunia, Countess oi 
Ellesmere. E : coleus, Golden Bedder ; Coleus Vers chaff eltii. F 
Achyranthes Lindeni; yellow dwarf nasturtium. 
No. 2. — Outside, red alternanthera ; middle, dusty miller; center, 
pink geranium. 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 239 

No. 3. — Outside, Alternanthera aurea nana ; middle, Alternanthera 

amcena spectabilis ; center, Anthemis coronaria. 
No. 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 12 may each be filled with a single color, or given a 

border of suitable plants if the planter so chooses. 
No. 9. — Ground, Alternanthera aurea nana ; center, Acalypha 

tricolor ; black dots, scarlet geranium. 
No. 10. — Ground of Centaurea gymnocarpa ; circle, Achyranthes 

Lindeni ; cross, Golden coleus. 
No. 11. — Border, Oxalis tropseoloides ; center, blue heliotrope, blue 
ageratum, or Acalypha marginata ; cross about the center, Thymus 
argenteus, or centaurea ; scallop outside the cross,blue lobelia ; corners, 
inside border, santolina. 

Designs 13 and 14 are, in character, somewhat in the style of a 
parterre; but instead of the intervening spaces in the bed being 
ordinary walks they are of grass. Such beds are of a useful type, be- 
cause they may be made large and yet be executed with a compara- 
tively small number of plants. They are especially suitable for the 
center of an open plot of lawn with definite formal boundaries on all 
sides, such as walks or drives. Whether they are to be composed of 
tall-growing or of low-growing plants will depend upon the distance 
they are to be from the observer. For a moderate-sized plot the 
following plants might be used : — 

No. 13. — Border, red alternanthera ; second row, dwarf orange or 
yellow nasturtium; third row, Achyranthes Gilsoni, or Acalypha 
tricolor; central square, scarlet geraniums, with a border of Cen- 
taurea gymnocarpa; intervening spaces, grass. Instead of the 
square of geraniums, a vase might be substituted, or a clump of 
Salvia splendens. 
No. 14. — Composite beds like this and the former are always sug- 
gestive. They contain various features which may readily be re- 
combined into other patterns. Sometimes it may be convenient 
to use only portions of the design. The reader should feel that no 
arrangement is arbitrary, but merely a suggestion that he may 
use with the utmost freedom, only keeping harmony in view. For 
No. 14, the following may be an acceptable planting arrangement: 
Border, Mme. Salleroi geranium; small dots, dwarf scarlet trope- 
olum; diamonds, blue lobelia; crescents, Stevia serrata variegata; 



240 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




inner border, crim- 
son achyranthes or 
coleus; loops, Cen- 
taurea gymnocarpa ; 
wedge-shaped por- 
tions, scarlet gera- 
nium. 
No. 15. — Suitable for 
a corner. Border, 
red alternanthera ; 
second row, Alter- 
nanthera aurea 
nana ; third row, 
red alternanthera ; 
center, Echeveria 
Calif ornica. 

1\0. 10. -DOr&er, 241. Carpet-bed for a bay or recession in the border 

crimson alternan- planting. 

thera (another border of yellow alternanthera might be placed 

inside of this) ; 
ground, Echeveria 
secunda glauca; 
inner border, Oxalis 
tropseoloides ; cen- 
ter, Alternanthera 
aurea nana. Or, 
inner border, Eche- 
veria Calif ornica ; 
center, crimson al- 
ternanthera. 
No. 17. — Another 
bed intended to fill 
an angle. Its 
curved side will 
also fit it for use 
with a circular de- 
242. Another circular carpet-bed. sign. Border, dwarf 




THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 241 

blue ageratum; circle, blue lobelia; ground (3 parts), crimson alter- 
nanthera. 
Other carpet or mosaic beds (after Long), with the plants indicated, 
are shown in Figs. 241, 242. 

2. The Annual Plants 

The annual flowers of the seedsmen are those that give their 
best bloom in the very year in which the seeds are sown. True 
annuals are those plants that complete their entire life-cycle in 
one season. Some of the so-called annual flowers will continue 
to bloom the second and third years, but the bloom is so poor 
and sparse after the first season that it does not pay to keep them. 
Some perennials may be treated as annuals by starting the 
seeds early; Chinese pink, pansy and snapdragon are examples. 

The regular biennials may be treated practically as annuals ; 
that is, seeds may be sown every year, and after the first year, 
therefore, a seasonal succession of bloom may be had. Of such 
are adlumia, Canterbury bell, lunaria, ipomopsis, Oenothera 
Lamarckiana; and foxglove, valerian, and some other perennials 
would better be treated as biennials. 

Most annuals will bloom in central New York if the seeds are 
sown in the open ground when the weather becomes thoroughly 
settled. But there are some kinds, as the late cosmos and moon- 
flowers, for which the northern season is commonly too short 
to give good bloom unless they are started very early indoors. 

If flowers of any annual are wanted extra early, the seeds 
should be started under cover. A greenhouse is not necessary 
for this purpose, although best results are to be expected 
with such a building. The seed may be sown in boxes, and 
these boxes then placed in a sheltered position on the warm side 
of a building. At night they may be covered with boards or 
matting. In very cold " spells" the boxes should.be brought 
inside. In this simple way seeds may often be started one to 
three weeks ahead of the time when they can be sown in the 



242 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

open garden. Moreover, the plants are likely to receive better 
care in these boxes, and therefore to grow more rapidly. Of 
course, if still earlier results are desired, the seed should be sown 
in the kitchen, hotbed, coldframe, or in a greenhouse. In 
starting plants ahead of the season, be careful not to use too 
deep boxes. The gardener's "flat" may be taken as a sugges- 
tion. Three inches of earth is sufficient, and in some cases (as 
when the plants are started late) half this depth is enough. 

The difficulty with early sown seedlings is " drawing up," and 
weakness from crowding and want of light. This is most liable 
to occur with window-grown plants. Vigorous June-sown plants 
are better than such weaklings. It must be remembered 
that very early bloom usually means the shortening of the 
season at the other end; this may be remedied to some extent 
by making sowings at different times. 

The "hardy" annuals are such as develop readily without 
the aid of artificial heat. They are commonly sown in May or 
earlier, directly in the open ground where they are to grow. 
Florists often sow certain kinds in the fall, and winter the 
young plants in coldframes. They may also be wintered under 
a covering of leaves or evergreen boughs. Some of the hardy 
annuals (as sweet pea) withstand considerable frost. The 
"half-hardy" and "tender" annuals are alike in that they 
require more warmth for their germination and growth. The 
tender kinds are very quickly sensitive to frost. Both these, 
like the hardy kinds, may be sown in the open ground, but not 
until the weather has become settled and warm, which for the 
tender kinds will not commonly be before the first of June; but 
the tender kinds, at least, are preferably started in the house and 
transplanted to their outdoor beds. Of course, these terms are 
wholly relative. What may be a tender annual in Massachu- 
setts may be a hardy annual or even a perennial in Louisiana. 

These terms as ordinarily used in this country refer to the 
northern states, or not farther south than middle Atlantic states. 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 243 

Some familiar examples of hardy annuals are sweet alyssum, 
ageratum, calendula, calliopsis, candytuft, Centaurea Cyanus, 
clarkia, larkspur, gilia, California poppy, morning-glory, mari- 
gold, mignonette, nemophila, pansy, phlox, pinks, poppies, por- 
tulaca, zinnia, sweet pea, scabiosa. 

Examples of half-hardy annuals are: China aster, alonsoa, 
balsam, petunia, ricinus, stocks, balloon-vine, martynia, 
salpiglossis, thunbergia, nasturtium, verbena. 

Examples of tender annuals : Amarantus, celosia or coxcomb, 
cosmos, cotton, Lobelia Erinus, cobea, gourds, ice-plant, sen- 
sitive-plant, solanums, torenia, and such things as dahlias, 
caladiums, and acalypha used for bedding and subtropical 
effects. 

Some annuals do not bear transplanting well; as poppies, 
bartonia, Venus' looking-glass, the dwarf convolvulus, lupinus, 
and malope. It is best, therefore, to sow them where they 
are to grow. 

Some kinds (as poppies) do not bloom all summer, more 
especially not if allowed to produce seed. Of such kinds a 
second or third sowing at intervals will provide a succession. 
Preventing the formation of seeds prolongs their life and flower- 
ing period. 

A few of the annuals thrive in partial shade or where they 
receive sunshine for half the day; but most of them prefer a 
sunny situation. 

Any good garden soil is suitable for annuals. If not natu- 
rally fertile and friable, it should be made so by the application 
of well-rotted stable-manure or humus. The spading should be 
at least one foot deep. The upper six inches is then to be given 
a second turning to pulverize and mix it. After making the 
surface fine and smooth the soil should be pressed down with a 
board. The seed may now be sprinkled on the soil in lines or 
concentric circles, according to the method desired. After cov- 
ering the seed, the soil should be again pressed down with a 



244 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

board. This promotes capillarity, by which the surface of the 
soil is better supplied with moisture from below. Always mark 
with a label the kind and position of all seed sown. 

If the flowers are to be grown about the edges of the lawn, 
make sure that the grass roots do not run underneath them and 
rob them of food and moisture. It is well to run a sharp spade 
deep into the ground about the edges of the bed every two or 
three weeks for the purpose of cutting off any grass roots that 
may have run into the bed. If beds are made in the turf, see 
that they are 3 ft. or more wide, so that the grass roots will not 
undermine them. Against the shrub borders, this precaution 
may not be necessary. In fact, it is desirable that the flowers 
fill all the srjace between the overhanging branches and the sod. 

It is surprising how few of the uncommon or little known 
annuals really have great merit for general purposes. There is 
nothing yet to take the place of the old-time groups, such as 
amaranths, zinnias, calendulas, daturas, balsams, annual pinks, 
candytufts, bachelor's buttons, wallflowers, larkspurs, petu- 
nias, gaillardias, snapdragons, coxcombs, lobelias, coreopsis or 
calliopsis, California poppies, four-o'clocks, sweet sultans, 
phloxes, mignonettes, scabiosas, nasturtiums, marigolds, China 
asters, salpigiossis, nicotianas, pansies, portulacas, castor beans, 
poppies, sunflowers, verbenas, stocks, alyssums, and such good 
old running plants as scarlet runners, sweet peas, convolvuluses, 
ipomeas, tall nasturtiums, balloon vines, cobeas. Of the annual 
vines of recent introduction, the Japanese hop has at once taken 
a prominent place for the covering of fences and arbors, although 
it has no floral beauty to recommend it. 

For bold mass-displays of color in the rear parts of the grounds 
or along the borders, some of the coarser species are desirable. 
Good plants for such use are : sunflower and castor bean for the 
back rows; zinnias for bright effects in the scarlets and lilacs; 
African marigolds for brilliant yellows; nicotianas for whites. 
Unfortunately, we have no robust-growing annuals with good 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 245 

blues. Some of the larkspurs and the browallias are perhaps 
the nearest approach to them. 

For lower-growing and less gross mass-displays, the following 
are good: California poppies for oranges and yellows; sweet 
sultans for purples, whites, and pale yellows; petunias for 
purples, violets, and whites; larkspurs for blues and violets; 
bachelor's buttons (or cornflowers) for blues; calliopsis and 
coreopsis and calendulas for yellows; gaillardias for red-yellows 
and orange-reds; China asters for many colors. 

For still less robustness, good mass-displays can be made with 
the following: alyssums and candytufts for whites; phloxes for 
whites and various pinks and reds; lobelias and browallias for 
blues; pinks for whites and various shades of pink; stocks 
for whites and reds; wallflowers for brown-yellows; verbenas for 
many colors. 

A garden of pleasant annual flowers is not complete that 
does not contain some of the "everlastings" or immortelles. 
These " paper flowers" are always interesting to children. 
They are not so desirable for the making of "dry bouquets" 
as for their value as a part of a garden. The colors are bright, 
the blooms hold long on the plant, and most of the kinds are 
very ^easy to grow. My favorite groups are the different kinds 
of xeranthemums and helichrysums. The globe amaranths, 
with clover-like heads (sometimes known as bachelor's but- 
tons), are good old favorites. Rhodanthes and acrocliniums 
are also good and reliable. 

The ornamental grasses should not be overlooked. They add 
a note to the flower-garden and to bouquets that is distinct 
and can be secured by no other plants. They are easily grown. 
Some of the good annual grasses are Agrostis nebulosa, the 
brizas, Bromus brizceformis, the species of eragrostis and pennise- 
tums, and Coix Lachryma as a curiosity. Such good lawn 
grasses as arundo, pampas-grass, eulalias, and erianthus are 
perennials and are therefore not included in this discussion. 



246 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Some of the most reliable and easily grown annuals are given 
in the following lists (under the common trade names). 

List of annuals by color of flowers. 

White Flowers 

Ageratum Mexicanum album. 

Alyssum, common sweet ; compacta. 

Centranthus macrosiphon albus. 

China asters. 

Convolvulus major. 

Dianthus, Double White Margaret. 

Iberis amara; coronaria, White Rocket. 

Ipomcea hederacea. 

Lavatera alba. 

Malope grandiflora alba. 

Matthiola (Stocks), Cut and Come Again; Dresden Perpetual; Giant 

Perfection ; White Pearl. 
Mirabilis longiflora alba. 
Nigella. 

Phlox, Dwarf Snowball; Leopoldii. 
Poppies, Flag of Truce ; Shirley ; The Mikado. 
Zinnia. 

Yellow and Orange Flowers 
Cacalia lutea. 

Calendula officinalis, common; Meteor; sulphurea; suffruticosa. 
Calliopsis bicolor marmorata; cardaminef olia ; elegans picta. 
Cosmidium Burridgeanum. 
Erysimum Perofskianum. 
Eschscholtzia Californica. 
Hibiscus Africanus; Golden Bowl. 
Ipomcea coccinea lutea. 
Loasa tricolor. 
Tagetes, various kinds. 
Thunbergia alata Fryeri ; aurantiaca. 
Tropseolum, Dwarf, Lady Bird ; Tall, Schulzi. 
Zinnia. 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 247 

Blue and Purple Flowers 

Ageratum Mexicanum ; Mexicanum, Dwarf. 

Asperula setosa azurea. 

Brachycome iberidifolia. 

Browallia Czerniakowski ; elata. 

Centaurea Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact ; Cyanus minor. 

China asters of several varieties. 

Convolvulus minor ; minor unicaulis. 

Gilia achilleaefolia ; capitata. 

Iberis umbellata ; umbellata lilacina. 

Kaulfussia amelloides; atroviolacea. 

Lobelia Erinus ; Erinus, Elegant. 

Nigella. 

Phlox variabilis atropurpurea. 

Salvia farinacea. 

Specularia. 

Verbena, Black-blue ; cserulea ; Golden-leaved. 

Whitlavia gloxinioides. 

Red and Rose-red Flowers 
Abromia umbellata. 
Alonsoa grandiflora. 
Cacalia, Scarlet. 
Clarkia elegans rosea. 
Convolvulus tricolor roseus. 

Dianthus, Half Dwarf Early Margaret; Dwarf Perpetual; Chinensis. 
Gaillardia picta. 
Ipomoea coccinea ; volubilis. 

Matthiola annuus ; Blood-red Ten Weeks ; grandiflora, Dwarf. 
Papaver (Poppy) cardinale; Mephisto. 
Phaseolus multiflorus. 

Phlox, Large-flowering Dwarf ; Dwarf Fireball ; Black Warrior. 
Salvia coccinea. 
Saponaria. 

Tropseolum, Dwarf, Tom Thumb. 
Verbena hybrida, Scarlet Defiance. 
Zinnia. 



248 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



Useful annuals for edgings of beds 
and walks, and for ribbon-beds. 



Ageratum, blue and white. 

Alyssum, sweet. 

Brachycome. 

Calandrinia. 

Clarkia. 

Collinsias. 

Dianthuses or pinks. 

Gilia. 

Gypsophila muralis. 

Iberis or candytufts. 



Leptosiphons. 

Lobelia Erinus. 

Nemophilas. 

Nigellas. 

Portulaca or rose moss (Fig. 243) , 

Saponaria Calabrica. 

Specularia. 

Torenia. 

Whitlavia. 



Annuals that continue to bloom after frost. 

This list is compiled from Bulletin 161, Cornell Experiment 
Station. Several hundred kinds of annuals were grown at this 
station (Ithaca, N.Y.) in 1897 and 1898. The notes are given 
in the original trade names under which the seedsmen supplied 
the stock. 



Abronia umbellata. 

Adonis aestivalis ; autumnale. 

Argemone grandiflora 

Calendulas. 

Callirrhoe. 

Carduus benedictus. ^i* 

Centaurea Cyanus. 

Centauridium. 

Centranthus macro- 

Cerinthe retorta. [siphon 

Cheiranthus Cheiri. 

Chrysanthemums. 

Convolvulus minor ; tricolor 

Dianthus of various kinds. 

Elsholtzia cristata. 




243. Portulaca, or rose moss. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS —ANNUALS 



249 




Erysimum Perofskianum ; Arkansanum. 

Eschscholtzias, in several varieties (Fig. 24&) . 

Gaillardia picta. 

Gilia achillesef olia ; capitata ; laciniata ; tricolor. 

Iberis affinis. 

Lavatera alba. 

Matthiolas or stocks. 

(Enothera rosea ; Lamarckiana ; 

Phlox Drummondii. [Drummondii. 

Podolepis affinis ; chrysantha. 

Salvia coccinea; farinacea; Horminum. 

Verbenas. 

Vicia Gerardi. 

Virginian stocks. 244. Pansies. 

Viscaria elegans ; oculata ; Cceli-rosa. 

List of annuals suitable for bedding (that 
is, for "mass effects " of color). 

A list of this kind is necessarily both incomplete and im- 
perfect, because good new varieties are frequently appearing, 
and the taste of the gardener must be consulted. Any plants 
may be used, broadly speaking, for bedding; but the following 
list (given in terms of trade names) suggests some of the best 
subjects to use when beds of solid, strong color are desired. 

Adonis aestivalis ; autumnalis. 

Ageratum Mexicanum ; Mexicanum, Dwarf. 

Bartonia aurea. 

Cacalia. 

Calendula officinalis, in several forms ; pluvialis ; Pongei ; sulphurea, 

fl. pi. ; suffruticosa. 
Calliopsis bicolor marmorata ; cardaminefolia ; elegans picta. 
Callirrhoe involucrata ; pedata ; pedata nana. 
Centaurea Americana; Cyanus, Victoria Dwarf Compact; Cyanus 

minor; suaveolens. 
China asters. 
Chrysanthemum Burridgeanum ; carinatum ; coronarium ; tricolor. 



250 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Convolvulus minor ; tricolor. 

Cosmidium Burridgeanum. 

Delphinium, single; double. 

Dianthus, Double White Half Dwarf Margaret; Dwarf Perpetual; 
Caryophyllus semperflorens ; Chinensis, double ; dentosus hybridus ; 
Heddewigii; imperialis; laciniatus, Salmon Queen; plumarius; 
superbus, dwarf fl. pi. ; picotee. 

Elsholtzia cristata. 

Eschscholtzia Calif ornica ; crocea; Mandarin; tenuifolia (Fig. 249). 

Gaillardia picta ; picta Lorenziana. 

Gilia achillesef olia ; capitata ; laciniata ; linifolia ; nivalis ; tricolor. 

Godetia Whitneyi ; grandiflora maculata ; rubicunda splendens. 

Hibiscus Africanus ; Golden Bowl. 

Iberis affinis ; amara ; coronaria ; umbellata. 

Impatiens or balsam. 

Lavatera alba ; trimestris. 

Linum grandiflorum. 

Madia elegans. 

Malope grandiflora. 

Matricaria eximia plena. 

Matthiola or stock, in many forms ; Wallflower-leaved ; bicornis. 

Nigella, or Love-in-a-mist. 

(Enothera Drummondii ; Lamarckiana; rosea; tetraptera. 

Papaver or poppy, of many kinds ; cardinale ; glaucum ; umbrosum. 

Petunia, bedding kinds. 

Phlox Drummondii, in many varieties. 

Portulaca (Fig. 243). 

Salvia farinacea ; Horminum; splendens. 

Schizanthus papilionaceus ; pinnatus. 

Silene Armeria ; pendula. 

Tagetes, or marigold, in many forms ; erecta ; patula ; signata. 

Tropseolum, Dwarf. 

Verbena auriculseflci-a ; Italica striata; hybrida; caerulea; Golden- 
leaved. 

Viscaria Cceli-rosa ; elegans picta ; oculata. 

Zinnia, Dwarf; elegans alba; Tom Thumb; Haageana; coccinea 
plena (Fig. 247). 



XI. The back yard, with summer house, and gardens beyond. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — ANNUALS 251 

List of annuals by height. 

It is obviously impossible to make any accurate or definite 
list of plants in terms of their height, but the beginner may 
be aided by approximate measurements. The following lists 
are made from Bulletin 161 of the Cornell Experiment Station, 
which gives tabular data on many annuals grown at Ithaca, 
N.Y. Seeds of most of the kinds were sown in the open, rather 
late. "The soil varied somewhat, but it was light and well 
tilled, and only moderately rich." Ordinary good care was 
given the plants. The average height of the plants of each 
kind at full growth, as they stood on the ground, is given in 
these lists. Of course, these heights might be less or more with 
different soils, different treatments, and different climates; but 
the figures are fairly comparable among themselves. 

The measurements are based on the stock supplied by leading 
seedsmen under the trade names here given. It is not unlikely 
that some of the discrepancies were due to mixture of seed or 
to stock being untrue to type; some of it may have been due 
to soil, conditions. The same name may be found in two divi- 
sions in some instances, the plants having been grown from 
different lots of seeds. The lists will indicate to the grower 
what variations he may expect in any large lot of seeds. 

Seedsmen's catalogues should be consulted for what the 
trade considers to be the proper and normal heights for the 
different plants. 

Plants 6-8 in. high 

Abronia umbellata grandiflora. 

Alyssum compactum. 

Callirrhoe involucrata. 

Godetia, Bijou, Lady Albemarle, and Lady Satin Rose. 

Gypsophila muralis. 

Kaulfussia amelloides. 

Leptosiphon hybridus. 



252 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Linaria Maroccana. 

Lobelia Erinus and Erinus Elegant. 

Nemophila atomaria, discoidalis, insignis, and maculata. 

Nolana lanceolata, paradoxa, prostrata, and atriplicifolia. 

Podolepis chrysantha and affinis. 

Portulaca. 

Rhodanthe Manglesii. 

Sedum cseruleum. 

Silene pendula ruberrima. 

Verbena. 

Plants 9-12 in. high 
Alyssum. 

Asperula setosa azurea. 
Brachycome iberidifolia. 
Calandrinia umbellata elegans. 
Callirrhoe pedata nana. 
Centaurea Cyanus Victoria Dwarf Compact. 
Centranthus macrosiphon nanus. 

Collinsia bicolor, candidissima and multicolor marmorata. 
Convolvulus minor and tricolor. 
Eschscholtzia crocea. 
Gamolepis Tagetes. 
Gilia laciniata and linifolia. 

Godetia Duchess of Albany, Prince of Wales, Fairy Queen, Brilliant, 
grandiflora maculata, Whitneyi, Duke of Fife, rubicunda splendens. 
Helipterum corymbiflorum. 
Iberis affinis. 

Kaulfussia amelloides atroviolacea, and a. kermesina. 
Leptosiphon androsaceus and densiflorus. 
Linaria bipartita splendida. 

Matthiola dwarf Forcing Snowflake, Wallflower-leaved. 
Mesembryanthemum crystallinum. 
Mimulus cupreus. 

Nemophila atomaria oculata and marginata. 
Nigella. 

Nolana atriplicifolia. 
Omphalodes linifolia. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — ANNUALS 253 

(Enothera rosea and tetraptera. 

Phlox, Large-flowering Dwarf and Dwarf Snowball. 

Rhodanthe maculata. 

Saponaria Calabrica. 

Schizanthus pinnatus. 

Silene Armeria and pendula. 

Specularia. 

Viscaria oculata caerulea. 

Plants 13-17 in. high 

Abronia umbellata. 

Acroclinium album and roseum. 

Brachycome iberidifolia alba. 

Browallia Czerniakowski and elata. 

Cacalia. 

Calandrinia grandiflora. 

Calendula sulphurea flore pleno. 

Chrysanthemum carinatum. 

Collomia coccinea. 

Convolvulus minor and minor unicaulis. 

Dianthus, the Margaret varieties, Dwarf Perpetual, Caryophyllus sem- 
perflorens, Chinensis, dentosus hybridus, Heddewigii, imperialis, 
laciniatus, plumarius, superbus dwarf, picotee, Comtesse de Paris. 

Elsholtzia cristata. 

Eschscholtzia Californica, Mandarin, maritima and tenuifolia. 

Gaillardia picta. 

Gilia achilleaefolia alba and nivalis. 

Helipterum Sanfordii. 

Hieracium, Bearded. 

Iberis amara, coronaria Empress, coronaria White Rocket, Sweet- 
scented, umbellata, umbellata carnea, and umbellata lilacina. 

Leptosiphon carmineus. 

Lupinus nanus, sulphureus. 

Malope grandiflora. 

Matthiola, Wallflower-leaved and Virginian stock. 

Mirabilis alba. 

Nigella. 



254 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

(Enothera Lamarckiana. 

Palafoxia Hookeriana. 

Papaver, Shirley and glaucum. 

Petunia. 

Phlox of many kinds. 

Salvia Horminum. 

Schizanthus papilionaceus. 

Statice Thouini and superba. 

Tagetes, Pride of the Garden and Dwarf. 

Tropaeolum, many kinds of dwarf. 

Venidium calendula ceum. 

Verbena of several kinds. 

Viscaria Cceli-rosa, elegans picta, oculata, and oculata alba. 

Whitlavia gloxinioides. 

Plants 18-23 in. high 

Adonis aestivalis and autumnalis. 

Amarantus atropurpureus. 

Calendula officinalis, Meteor, suffruticosa, and pluvialis. 

Calliopsis bi color marmorata. 

Callirrhoe pedata. 

Centaurea Cyanus minor Blue and suaveolens. 

Centranthus macrosiphon. 

Chrysanthemum Burridgeanum, carinatum, tricolor Dunnettii. 

Cosmidium Burridgeanum. 

Delphinium (annual). 

Eutoca Wrangeliana. 

Gaillardia picta (Fig. 245), Lorenziana. 

Gilia achillesefolia, a. rosea and tricolor. 

Helichrysum atrosanguineum. 

Ipomcea coccinea. 

Linum grandiflorum. 

Loasa tricolor. 

Lupinus albus, hirsutus and pubescens. 

Malope grandiflora alba. \ 

Matricaria eximia plena. 

Matthiola, several kinds. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — ANNUALS 255 

QEnothera Drummondii. 

Papaver Mephisto, cardinale, c. hybridum, c. Danebrog, umbrosum. 

Tagetes patula and signata. 

Vicia Gerardii. 

Whitlavia grandifiora and g. alba. 

Xeranthemum album and multiflorum album. 

Zinnias of many kinds (all not mentioned in other lists). 

Plants 24-30 in. high 

Bartonia aurea. 

Calendula officinalis fl. pi., Prince of Orange and Pongei. 

Calliopsis elegans picta. 

Cardiospermum Halicacabum. 

Carduus benedictus. 

Centaurea Cyanus minor Emperor William. 

Cheiranthus Cheiri. 

Chrysanthemum tricolor, t. hybridum and coronarium sulphureum 

fl.pl. 
Clarkia elegans rosea. 
Datura cornucopia. 

Erysimum Arkansanum and Perofskianum. 
Eutoca viscida. 
Gilia capitata alba. 

Helichrysum bracteatum and macranthum. 
Hibiscus Africanus. 
Impatiens, all varieties. 
Lupinus hirsutus pilosus. 
Matthiola Blood-red Ten Weeks, Cut and Come Again, grandifiora, 

annuus, and others. 
Mirabilis Jalapa folio variegata and longiflora alba. 
Papaver, American Flag, Mikado and Double. 
Perilla laciniata and Nankinensis. 
Salvia farinacea. 

Tagetes Eldorado, Nugget of Gold, erecta fl. pi. 
Xeranthemum annuum and superbissimum fl. pi. 
Zinnia elegans alba fl. pi. 



256 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



Plants 31-40 in. high 

Acroclinium, double rose and white. 
Adonis aestivalis. 

Ageratum Mexicanum album and blue. 
Amarantus bicolor ruber. 
Argemone grandiflora. 
Centaurea Americana. 
Centauridium Drummondii. 
Cerinthe retorta. [c. double yellow. 

Chrysanthemum coronarium album and 
Clarkia elegans alba fl. pi. 
Cleome spinosa. 
Cyclanthera pedata. 
Datura fastuosa and New Golden 
Euphorbia marginata. [Queen. 

Gilia capitata alba. 
Helianthus Dwarf double and cucu- 
Hibiscus Golden Bowl. [merifolius. 
Lavatera trimestris. 
Madia elegans. 
Martynia craniolaria. 
Salvia coccinea. 

Plants 41 in. and above. 

Adonis autumnalis. 

Helianthus of several garden kinds (not 
mentioned elsewhere). 
Ricinus, all varieties. 
And many climbing vines. 
Distances for planting annuals 

(or plants treated as annuals). 

Only an approximate idea can be given of the distances 
apart at which annuals should be planted, for not only does 
the distance depend on the fertility of the land (the stronger 
the soil the greater the distance), but also on the object the 
person has in growing the plants, whether to produce a solid 




245. Gaillardia, one of the showy garden 
annuals. 






THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — ANNUALS 



257 



mass effect or to secure strong specimen plants with large 
individual bloom. If specimen plants are to be raised, the 
distances should be liberal. 

The distances here given for some of the commoner annuals 
may be considered to represent average or usual spaces that 
single plants may occupy under ordinary conditions in flower- 
beds, although it would probably be impossible to find any two 
gardeners or seedsmen who would agree on the details. These 
are suggestions rather than recommendations. It is always 
well to set or sow more plants than are wanted, for there is 
danger of loss from cut- worms and other causes. The general 
tendency is to let the plants stand too close together at maturity. 
In case of doubt, place plants described in books and cata- 
logues as very dwarf at six inches, those as medium-sized at 
twelve inches, very large growers at two feet, and thin them out 
if they seem to demand it as they grow. 

The plants in these lists are thrown into 
four groups (rather than all placed together 
with the numbers after them) in order to 
classify the subject in the beginner's mind. 

6 to 9 inches apart 

Ageratum, very dwarf kinds. 

Alyssum. 

Asperula setosa. 

Cacalia. 

Candytuft. 

Clarkia, dwarf. 

Collinsia. 

Gysophila muralis. 

Kaulfussia. 

Larkspur, dwarf kinds. 

Linaria. 246. Wild phlox (P. 

Linum grandiflorum. maculata), one of the 

Lobelia Erinus. Mignonette, dwarf kinds. ^j garden phloxes. 




258 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




247. Zinnias. Often known as "youth 
and old age." 



Pansy. 

Phlox, very dwarf kinds. 

Pinks, very dwarf kinds. 

Rhodanthe. 

Schizopetalon. 

Silene Armeria. 

Snapdragon, dwarf. 

Sweet pea. 

Torenia. 



10 to 15 inches apart 

Those marked (ft.) are examples of plants that may usually stand 
at twelve inches. 
Abronia (ft.). 
Acroclinium. 
Adlumia. 

Adonis autumnalis. 
Ageratum, tall kinds. 
Alonsoa. 

Aster, China, smaller kinds (ft.). 
Balsam. 
Bartonia. 
Browallia. 
Calendula. 'M 

IIS 

California poppy (Eschscholtzia) . \ 

Calliopsis. 

Cardiospermum. 

Carnation, flower-garden kinds 

Celosia, small kinds. [(ft.). 

Centaurea Cyanus. 

Centauridium (ft.). 

Centranthus (ft.). 

Clarkia, tall (ft.). 

Convolvulus tricolor (ft.). 

Gaillardia, except on strong land. 

Gilias. 

Glaucium. 

Godetia (ft,). 




248. Improved perennial phlox. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — ANNUALS 



259 



Gomphrena. 
Gypsophila elegans. 
Helichrysum (ft.). 
Himnemannia. 
Jacobsea. [kinds. 

Larkspur, tall annual 
Malope. [varieties. 

Marigold, intermediate 
Mignonette, tall kinds. 
Mesembryanthemum 

(ice-plant) (ft.). 
Morning-glory. 
Nasturtium, dwarf. 
Nemophila. 
Nigella. 
Petunia. 

Phlox Drummondii. 
Pinks. 
Poppies (6 to 18 in., 

according to variety). 
Portulaca (ft.). 
Salpiglossis (ft.). 
Scabiosa (ft.). 
Schizanthus. 
Snapdragon, tall kinds. 
Statice (ft.). 
Stock (ft.). 

Tagetes, dwarf French. 
Thunbergia (ft.). 
Verbena. 

Whitlavia (ft.), [(ft.). 
Zinnia, very dwarf kinds 

18 to 24 inches 
Amarantus. 
Ammobium. 
Argemone. 

Aster, China, the big kinds (or rows 2 ft. apart and plants 1 ft. in row) . 
Callirrhoe. 




249. Eschscholtzia, or California poppy, 
size. 



One-half 



260 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



Canterbury bell (up to 3 ft.). 
Celosia, large kinds (up to 30 in.). 

Chrysanthemum, annual. 

Cosmos, smaller kinds. 

Euphorbia marginata. 

Four o'clock (up to 30 in.) 

Hop, Japanese. [to 30 in.). 

Kochia, or summer cypress (up 

Marigold, tall kinds. 

Nasturtium, tall, if allowed to 
spread on the ground. 

Nicotiana (up to 30 in.) . ' 

(Enothera, tall kinds. 

Salvia coccinea (splendens 
grandiflora), about 2 ft. 

Zinnia, tall kinds (up to 3 ft). 

About 3 feet or more 

Caladium. 

Cosmos, tall kinds (2 to 3 ft.). 

Dahlia. 

Datura. 

Martynia. 

Ricinus or castor bean. 
Solanums. 

Sunflower, tall kinds. 
Wigandia. 

3. Hardy Herbaceous Perennials 

There is a rapidly growing appreciation of perennial herbs, 
not only as flower-garden and lawn subjects, but as parts of 
native landscapes. Every locality yields its wild asters, golden- 
rods, columbines, iris, trilliums, lilies, anemones, pentstemons, 
mints, sunflowers, or other plants ; and many of these also 
make good subjects for the home grounds. 

It is important to remember that some perennial herbs begin 
to fail after one to three seasons of full bloom. It is a good 




250. A modern peony. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — PERENNIALS 261 

plan to have new plants coming on to take their place; or the 
old roots may be taken up in the fall and divided, only the 
fresh and strong parts being planted again. 

Perennial herbs are propagated in various ways, — by seeds, 
and by cuttings of the stems and roots, but mostly by the easy 
method of division. On the raising of these plants from seeds, 
William Falconer writes as follows in Dreer's " Garden Book" 
for 1909: — 

" Hardy perennials are easily grown from seed. In many 
cases they are a little slower than annuals, but with intelligent 
care they are successfully raised, and from seed is an excellent 
way to get up a big stock of perennials. Many sorts, if 
sown in spring, bloom the first year from seeds as early as 
annuals; for instance: gaillardia, Iceland poppies, Chinese 
larkspur, platycodon, etc. Others do not bloom until the 
second year. 

" The amateur may have more success and less bother growing 
perennials from seed sown in the open ground than from any 
other way. Prepare a bed in a nice, warm, sheltered spot in 
the garden, preferably not very sunny. Let the surface of the 
bed be raised four or five inches above the general level, and 
the soil be a mellow fine earth on the surface. Draw shallow 
rows across the surface of the bed three or four inches apart, 
and here sow the seeds, keeping the varieties of one kind or 
nature as much together as practicable, covering the seeds 
thinly; press the whole surface gently, water moderately, then 
dust a little fine loose soil over all. If the weather is sunny or 
windy, shade with papers or a few branches, but remove these in 
the evening. When the seedlings come up, thin them out to 
stiffen those that are left, and when they are two or three inches 
high, they are fit for transplanting into permanent quarters. 
All this should be done in early spring, say March, April, or 
May. Again, in July or August perennials are very easily 
raised out of doors, and much in the same way as above. Or 



262 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

they may be sown in early spring indoors, in the window, the 
hotbed, the coldframe, or the greenhouse, preferably in boxes 
or pans, as for growing annuals. Some gardeners sow seed 
right in the coldframe. I have tried both ways, and find the 
boxes best, as the different varieties of seeds do not come up at 
the same time, and you can remove them from the close frame 
to more airy quarters as soon as the seed comes up, whereas, if 
sown in a frame, you would have to give them all the same 
treatment. When the seedlings are large enough, I trans- 
plant them into other boxes, and put them into a shady part 
of the garden, but not under the shade of trees, as there they 
will l draw ' too much. About the fifteenth of September plant 
them in the garden where they are to bloom, or if the garden 
is full of summer-flowering plants, put them in beds in the 
vegetable garden, to be planted out in the early spring, and 
give them a light covering of straw or manure to keep sudden 
changes of the weather away from them." 

Hardy perennial herbs may be planted in September and Oc- 
tober with excellent results; also in spring. See that they are 
protected with mulch in winter. 

Perennial herbs suitable for lawn and u 'planting'' 1 effects. 

Some of the striking plants that are valuable for lawn plant- 
ing in the North, chosen chiefly on account of their size, foliage, 
and habit, are mentioned in the following brief list. They may 
or may not be suitable for flower-gardens. It is impossible to 
give to this list any degree of completeness; but the names 
here printed will be suggestive of the kinds of things that may 
be used. The asterisk (*) denotes native plants. 

Yucca, Yucca ftlamentosa.* 
Funkia, Funkia, of several species. 
Peltate saxifrage, Saxifraga peltata* 
Rose mallow, Hibiscus Moscheutos* 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — PERENNIALS 



263 



Elecampane, Inula Helenium (Fig. 251). 

Wild sunflowers, Helianthus * of different species, especially H. orygalis, 
H. giganteus, H. grosse-serratus, H. strumosus. 




251. Elecampane. Naturalized in old fields and along roadsides. 





thinaceum, S. laciniatum, S. perfoliatum. 
Sacaline, Polygonum Sachalinense. 
Japanese knotweed, Polygonum cuspidatum. 
Bocconia, Bocconia cordata. 
Wild wormwood, Artemisia Stelleriana* and others. 



264 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Butterfly-weed, Asclepias tuber osa* 

Wild asters, A ster* of many species, especially A. NovoB-Anglice (best), 

A. Icevis, A. multiflorus, A. spectabilis. 
Golden-rods, Solidago * of various species, especially S. speciosa, S. 

nemoralis, S. juncea, S. gigantea. 
Loose-strife, Lythrum Salicaria. 
Flags, Iris of many species, some native. 
Japanese wind-flower, Anemone Japonica. 
Goat's beard, Aruncus Sylvester (Spircea Aruncus).* 
Baptisia, Baptisia tinctoria* 
Thermopsis, Thermopsis mollis* 
Wild senna, Cassia Marilandica.* 
Wild trefoil, Desmodium Canadense * and others. 
Ribbon grass, Phalaris arundinacea* var. picta. 
Zebra grass, Eulalia (or Miscanthus) species, and varieties. 
Wild panic grass, Panicum virgatum.* 
Bambusas (and related things) of several sorts. 
Ravenna grass, Erianthus Ravennm. 
Arundo, Arundo Donax, and var. variegata. 
Reed, Phragmites communis.* 

This and the remaining plants of the list should be planted in the edges of 
water or in bogs (the list might be greatly extended). 

Wild rice, Zizania aquatica* 

Cat-tail, Typha angustifolia * and T. latifolia* 

Lizard's-tail, Saururus cernuus* 

Peltandra, Peltandra undulata* 

Orontium, Orontium aquaticum* 

Native calla, Calla palustris.* 

A brief seasonal flower-garden or border 
list of herbaceous perennials. 

To facilitate making a selection of perennial herbs for bloom, 
the plants in the following list are arranged according to their 
flowering season, beginning with the earliest. The name of the 
month indicates when they usually begin to bloom. It should 
be understood that the blooming season of plants is not a fixed 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — PERENNIALS 265 

period, but varies more or less with localities and seasons. 
These dates are applicable to most of the middle and northern 
states. Natives to North America are marked with an asterisk 
(*). This list is by Ernest Walker. 

March 

Blue Wind-flower, Anemone blanda. 6 in. March-May. Sky-blue, 
star-like flowers. Foliage deeply cut. For border and rockwork. 

Bloodroot, Sanguinaria Canadensis * 6 in. March-April. Pure 
white. Glaucous foliage. Partial shade. Border or rock-work. 

April 

Mountain Rock-cress, Arabis albida. 6 in. April-June. Flowers 

pure white; close heads in profusion. Fragrant. For dry places 

and rock-work. 
Purple Rock-cress, Aubrietia deltoidea. 6 in. April- June. Small 

purple flowers in great profusion. 
Daisy, Bellis perennis, 4-6 in. April- July. Flowers white, pink, or 

red ; single or double. The double varieties are the more desirable. 

Cover the plants in winter with leaves. May be raised from seed, 

like pansies. 
Spring Beauty, Claytonia Virginica* 6 in. April-May. Clusters of 

light pink flowers. Partial shade. From six to a dozen should be 

set together. 
Shooting Star, Dodecatheon Meadia* 1 ft. April-May. Reddish 

purple flowers, orange-yellow eye, in clusters. Cool, shady location, 

Plant several in a place. 
Dog's-bane, Doronicum plantagineumv&r. excelsum. 20 in. April- June. 

Large, showy flowers ; orange-yellow. Bushy plants. 
Liver-leaf, Hepatica acutiloba* and triloba* 6 in. April-May. 

Flowers small but numerous, varying white and pink. Partial 

shade. 
Hardy Candytuft, Iberis sempervirens. 10 in. April-May. Small 

white flowers in clusters ; profuse. Large, spreading, evergreen tufts. 
Alpine Lamp-flower, Lychnis alpina* 6 in. April-May. Flowers 

star-like, in showy heads ; pink. For border and rockery. 



266 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Early Forget-me-not, Myosotis dissitiflora. 6 in. April-June. Small 
clusters of deep sky-blue flowers. Tufted habit. 




252. The wild Trillium grandiflorum. 

Everblooming F., M. palustris var. semper flor ens. 10 in. Light blue 

spreading habit. 
Blue-bells, Mertensia Virginica* 1 ft. April-May. Flowers blue, 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — PERENNIALS 267 

changing to pink; pendent; tubular; not showy, but beautiful. 

Rich soil. Partial shade. 
Tree Peony, Pceonia Moutan. (See May, Pseonia.) 
Moss Pink, Phlox subulata* 6 in. April-June. Numerous deep 

pink, small flowers; creeping habit; evergreen. Suitable for dry 

places as a covering plant. 
Trilliums* Of several species ; always attractive and useful in the 

border (Fig. 252). They are common in rich woods and copses. 

Dig the tubers in late summer and plant them directly in the border. 

The large ones will bloom the following spring. The same may be 

said of the erythronium, or dog's-tooth violet or adder's tongue, and 

of very many other early wild flowers. 

May 

Ajuga reptans. 6 in. May-June. Spikes of purple flowers. Grows 
well in shady places ; spreading. A good cover plant. 

Madwort, Alyssum saxatile var. compactum. 1 ft. May- June. Flow- 
ers fragrant, in clusters, clear golden-yellow. Foliage silvery. 
Well-drained soil. One of the best yellow flowers. 

Columbine, Aquilegia glandulosa and others (Fig. 253). 1 ft. 
May- June. Deep blue sepals; white petals. Aquilegias are old 
favorites. (See June.) The wild A. Canadensis* is desirable. 

Lily-of-the- Valley, Convallaria majalis* 8 in. May- June. Racemes 
of small white bells ; fragrant. Well known. Partial shade. (See 
Chap. VIII.) 

Fumitory, Corydalis nobilis. 1 ft. May- June. Large clusters of fine 
yellow flowers. Bushy, upright habit. Does well in partial shade. 

Bleeding-Heart, Dicentra spectabilis. 2\ ft. May- June. Well known. 
Racemes of heart-shaped, deep pink and white flowers. Will bear 
partial shade. 

Crested Iris, Iris cristata* 6 in. May- June. Flowers blue, fringed 
with yellow. Leaves sword-shaped. 

German Iris, /. Germanica. 12-15 in. May- June. Numerous varie- 
ties and colors. Large flowers, 3-4 on a stem. Broad, glaucous, 
sword-shaped leaves. 

Peony, P&onia officinalis. 2 ft. May- June. This is the well-known 
herbaceous peony. There are numerous varieties and hybrids. 



268 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




253. One of the columbines. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — PERENNIALS 269 

Large flowers, 4-6 in. across. Crimson, white, pink, yellowish, etc. 

Suitable for lawn or the border. Fig. 250. 
Tree Peony, P. Moutan. 4 ft. April-May. Numerous named varieties. 

Flowers as above, excepting yellow. Branched, dense, shrubby 

habit. 
Meadow Sage, Salvia pratensis. 2\ ft. May- June, August. Spikes 

of deep blue flowers. Branching from the ground. 

June 

Achillea Ptarmica, fl. pi., var. "The Pearl." £ ft. June-August. 

Small double white flowers, in few-flowered clusters. Rich soil. 
Wind-flower, Anemone Pennsylvanica* 18 in. June-September. 

White flowers on long stems. Erect habit. Does well in th» shade. 
St. Bruno's Lily, Paradisea Liliastrum. 18 in. June-July. Bell-like, 

white flowers in handsome spikes. 
Golden-spurred Columbine, Aquilegia chrysantha* 3 ft. June-August. 

Golden flowers with slender spurs ; fragrant. 
Rocky Mountain Columbine, A. coerulea* 1 ft. June-August. 

Flowers with white petals and deep blue sepals, 2-3 in. in diam- 
eter. (See May.) 
Woodruff, Asperula odorata. 6 in. June- July. Small white flowers. 

Herbage fragrant when wilted. Does well in shade; spreading 

habit. Used for flavoring drinks, scenting and protecting garments. 
Astilbe Japonica (incorrectly called Spiraea). 2 ft. June- July. Small 

white flowers in a feathery inflorescence. Compact habit. 
Poppy Mallow, Callirrhoe involucrata* 10 in. June-October. 

Large crimson flowers, with white centers. Trailing habit. For 

border and rockery. 
Carpathian Harebell, Campanula Carpatica (Fig. 254). 8 in. June- 
September. Flowers deep blue. Tufted habit. For border or 

rockery. Good for cutting. 
C. glomerata var. Dahurica. 2 ft. June-August. Deep purple flowers 

in terminal clusters. Branching from the ground. Erect habit. 
Canterbury Bell, C. Medium. An old favorite. It is biennial, but 

blooms the first season if sown early. 
Corydalis lutea. 1 ft. June-September. Flowers yellow, in terminal 

clusters. Loose branching habit. Glaucous foliage. 



270 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



Scotch Pink, Dianthus plumarius. 10 in. June-July. White and 

pink-ringed flowers on slender stems. Densely tufted habit. 
Fringed Pink, D. superbus. 18 in. July-August. Fringed flowers. 

Lilac tint. 
Gas Plant, Dictamnus Fraxinella. 3 ft. June. Flowers purple, 

showy, fragrant; in long spikes. 
Regular habit. Var. alba. White. 
Gaillardia aristata* 2 ft. June- 
October. Showy orange and 
. maroon flowers on long stems. 
Good for cutting. Hybrid gail- 
lardias offer quite a variety of 
brilliant colors. 
Heuchera sanguinea* 18 in. June- 
September. Flowers in open 
panicles, scarlet, on clustered 
stems from a tufted mass of 
pretty foliage. 
Japan Iris, Iris laevigata (I. Kcemp- 
feri). 2-3 ft. June-July. Large 
flowers of various colors, in 
variety. Green, sword-like leaves. 
Dense tufted habit. Prefers a 
moist situation. 
Blazing Star, Liatris spicata* 2 ft. 
June-August. Spikes of fine, 
small purple flowers. Slender 
foliage. Unbranched, erect stems. Will grow in the poorest soil. 
Iceland Poppy, Papaver nudicaule* 1 ft. June-October. Bright 
yellow flowers. A close, dense habit. Erect, naked stems. The 
varieties Album, white, and Miniatum, deep orange, are also de- 
sirable. 
Oriental Poppy, P. orientate. 2-4 ft. June. Flowers 6-8 in. across ; 
deep scarlet, with a purple spot at the base of each petal. There are 
other varieties of pink, orange, and crimson shades. 
Pentstemon barbatus var. Torreyi* 3-4 ft. June-September. Crim- 
son flowers in long spikes. Branching from the base. Erect habit. 




254. Campanula Carpatica. 






THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — PERENNIALS 271 

Perennial Phlox, Phlox paniculata * and hybrids with P. maculata* 
2-3 ft. June. A great variety of colors in selfs and variegated 
forms. Flowers borne in large, flat panicles. (Figs. 246, 248.) 

Rudbeckia maxima* 5-6 ft. August. Large flowers ; cone-like cen- 
ter and long, drooping, yellow petals. 

Dropwort, Ulmaria Filipendula. 3 ft. June-July. White flowers in 
compact clusters. Tufted foliage, dark green and handsomely cut. 
Erect stems. (Often referred to Spiraea.) 

Adam's Needle, Yucca filamentosa* 4-5 ft. June- July. Waxen white, 
pendulous, liliaceous flowers in a great thyrsus. Leaves long, nar- 
row, dark green, with marginal filaments. For the lawn, and for 
massing in large grounds. 

July 

Hollyhock, Althcea rosea. 5-8 ft. Summer and fall. Flowers white, 
crimson, and yellow, lavender and purple. Stately plants of spire- 
like habit ; useful for the back of the border, or beds and groups. 
The newer double varieties have flowers as fine as a camellia. The 
plant is nearly biennial, but in rich, well-drained soil and with winter 
protection it becomes perennial. Easily grown from seed, bloom- 
ing the second year. Seeds may be sown in August in frames and 
carried over winter in the same place. The first year's bloom is 
usually the best. 

Yellow Chamomile, Anthemis tinctoria. 12-38 in. July-November. 
Flowers bright yellow, 1-2 in. in diameter. Useful for cutting. 
Dense, bushy habit. 

Delphinium Chinense. 3 ft. July-September. Variable colors ; from 
deep blue to lavender and white. Fine for the border. 

D. formosum. 4 ft. July-September. Fine spikes of rich blue 
flowers. One of the finest blue flowers cultivated. 

Funkia lancifolia. (See under August.) 

Helianthus multiflorus* var. fl. pi. 4 ft. July-September. Large 
double flowers, of a fine golden color. Erect habit. An excellent 
flower. 

Lychnis Viscaria var. flore pleno. 12-15 in. July-August. Double, 
deep rose-red flowers in spikes. For groups and masses. 

Monarda didyma* 2 ft. July-October. Showy scarlet flowers in 
terminal heads. 



272 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Pentstemon grandiflorus* 2 ft. July- August. Leafy spikes of 
showy purple flowers. 

P. Icevigatus var. Digitalis* 3 ft. July-August. Pure white flowers 
in spikes, with purple throats. 

Platycodon grandiflorum {Campanula grandiflora). 3 ft. July- 
September. Deep blue, bell-shaped flowers. Dense, fine, erect 
habit. 

P. Mariesi. 1 ft. July-September. Flowers larger; deep violet- 
blue. Heavier foliage. 

August 

Day Lily, Funkia subcordata. 18 in. August-October. Trumpet, 
lily-like, pure- white flowers in clusters, borne upon a stalk from the 
midst of a group of heart-shaped green leaves. 

F. lancifolia var. albo-marginata. July- August. Lavender flowers. 
Lance-like leaves margined with white. 

Flame Flower, Kniphofia aloides (Tritoma Uvaria). 3 ft. August- 
September. Bright orange-scarlet flowers, in close, dense spikes, 
at the summit of several scape-like stems. Leaves slender, forming 
a large tuft. For lawn and borders. Hardy only when covered with 
litter or straw in winter. 

Cardinal Flower, Lobelia cardinalis* 2|-4 ft. August-September. 
Flowers intense cardinal-red, of unrivaled brilliancy. Tall spikes. 
Stems clustered; erect. 

Giant Daisy, Chrysanthemum (or Pyrethrum) uliginosum. 3-5 ft. 
July-October. Flowers white, with golden centers. About 2 in. 
across. A stout, upright, bushy plant. Useful for cutting. 

Golden Glow, Rudbeckia laciniata* 6-7 ft. August-September. Large 
double golden-yellow flowers in great profusion. Bushy habit. 
Cut off when done flowering. Leaves appear at the base and a new 
crop of flow r ers, on stems about 1 ft. high, appear in October. 

Goldenrod, Solidago rigida* 3-5 ft. August-October. Flowers 
large for this genus, in close, short racemes in a corymbose-paniculate 
cluster. Fine, deep yellow. Erect habit. One of the best of the 
goldenrods. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — PERENNIALS 273 

September 

Japanese Wind-flower, Anemone Japonica. 2 ft. August-October. 

Flowers large, bright red. One of the best autumn flowers. 
A. Japonica var. alba. Flowers pure white, with yellow centers. 

Fine for cutting. 

October 

Hardy Chrysanthemums. The Chinese and Japanese Chrysanthemums, 
so well known, are hardy in light, well-drained soils, if well protected 
with litter or leaves during the winter, and in such situations will 
stand without protection south of Indianapolis. Chrysanthemums 
are gross feeders, and should have a rich soil. 

But there is a race of hardier or border chrysanthemums that is again 
coming into favor, and it is sure to give much satisfaction to those who 
desire flowers in latest fall. These chrysanthemums are much like 
the "artemisias" of our mother's gardens, although improved in size, 
form, and in range of color. 

One hundred extra-hardy perennial herbs. 

The following list of 100 " best hardy perennials " is adapted 
from a report of the Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Ontario. 
These plants are chosen from over 1000 species and varieties 
that have been on trial at that place. Those considered to be 
the best twenty-five for Canada are marked by a dagger (f) ; 
and those native to North America by an asterisk (*). 

Achillea Ptarmica flore pleno. — Height, 1 foot; in bloom fourth week 

of June ; flowers, small, pure white, double, and borne in clusters ; 

blooming freely throughout the summer, f 
Aconitum autumnale. — Height, 3 to 4 feet; September; flowers, 

bluish purple, borne in loose panicles. 
Aconitum Napellus. — Height, 3 to 4 feet; July; flowers, deep blue, 

borne on a large terminal spike ; desirable for the rear of the border. 
Adonis vernalis. — Height, 6 to 9 inches ; first week of May ; flowers, 

large, lemon-yellow, borne singly from the ends of the stems. 



274 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Agrostemma (Lychnis) Coronaria var. atropurpurea. — Height, 1 to 2 

feet ; fourth week of June ; flowers, medium size, bright crimson, 

borne singly from the sides and ends of the stems ; a very showy 

plant with silvery foliage, and continues to bloom throughout the 

summer. 
Anemone patens* — Height 6 to 9 inches ; fourth week of April ; 

flowers, large, and deep purple. 
Anthemis tinctoria var. Kelwayi. — Height, 1 to 2 feet ; fourth week 

of June ; flowers, large, deep yellow, borne singly on long stems ; it 

continues to bloom profusely throughout the summer ; is very showy 

and valuable for cutting, f 
Aquilegia Canadensis* — Height, 1 to 1| feet; third week of May; 

flowers, medium size, red and yellow. 
y Aquilegia chrysanth a* — Height, 3 to 4 feet; fourth week of June; 

flowers, large, bright lemon-yellow, with long slender spurs ; much 

later than other columbines, t 
Aquilegia ccerulea* — Height, 1 to 1§ feet; fourth week of May; 

flowers, large, deep blue with white center and long spurs, t 
Aquilegia glandulosa. — Height, 1 foot ; third week of May ; flowers, 

large, deep blue with white center and short spurs. 
Aquilegia oxysepala. — Height, 1 foot ; second week in May ; flowers, 

large, deep purplish blue with blue and yellow centers; a very 

desirable early species. 
Aquilegia Stuarti. — Height 9 to 12 inches ; third week of May ; flowers, 

large, deep blue with white center ; one of the best. 
Arabis alpina. — Height, 6 inches ; first week in May ; flowers, small, 

pure white, in clusters. 
Arnebia echioides. — Height, 9 inches ; third week of May ; flowers, 

yellow, borne in clusters with petals spotted with purple. One of the 

most charming of early flowering plants. 
Asclepias tuberosa* — Height, 1| to 2 feet; third week of July. 

Flowers, bright orange, borne in clusters. Very showy. 
Aster alpinus* — Height, 9 inches; first week of June; flowers, large, 

bright purple, borne on long stems from the base of the plant ; the 

earliest flowering of all the asters. 
Aster Amellus var. Bessarabicus. — Height, 1 to li feet; July to Sep- 
tember; flowers, large, deep purple, singly on long stems; very fine.f 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — PERENNIALS 275 

Aster Novae-AnglicB var. roseus.* — Height, 5 to 7 feet ; fourth week of 
August ; flowers, bright pink, borne profusely in large terminal clus- 
ters ; very showy. 

Boltonia asteroides* — Height, 4 to 5 feet ; September ; flowers, 
smaller than the next, pale pink, borne very profusely in large 
panicles; much later than the next species. 

boltonia latisquama* — Height, 4 feet ; first week of August ; flowers, 
large, white, somewhat resembling asters, and borne very profusely 
in large panicles. 

Campanula Carpatica. — Height, 6 to 9 inches ; first week of July ; 
flowers, medium size, deep blue, borne profusely in loose panicles ; 
continues in bloom throughout the summer. A white variety of this 
is also good. 

^Campanula Grossekii. — Height, 3 feet ; first week of July ; flowers, 
large, deep blue, borne on a long spike. 

Campanula persicifolia. — Height, 3 feet ; flowers, large, blue, borne in 
a raceme with long flower stems. There are also white and double 
varieties which are good. 

Clematis recta. — Height, 4 feet ; fourth week of June ; flowers, small, 
pure white, borne profusely in dense clusters. This is a very com- 
pact bushy species and desirable for the rear of the border. Clematis 
Jackmani with large deep purple flowers and Clematis Vitalba with 
small white flowers, are excellent climbing sorts. 

Convallaria majalis * (Lily-of-the-valley) . — Height, 6 to 9 inches ; latter 
part of May. 

Coreopsis delphinifolia* — Height, 2 to 3 feet ; first week of Julys; 
flowers, large, yellow, with dark centers and borne singly with long 
stems. 

Coreopsis grandiflora* — Height, 2 to 3 feet ; fourth week of June ; 
flowers, large, deep yellow, borne singly on long stems, blooming pro- 
fusely throughout the summer. 

Coreopsis lanceolata* — Height, 2 feet ; fourth week of June ; flowers 
large though slightly smaller than the last, and borne on long stems, 
blooming throughout the season, t 

Delphinium Cashmerianum. — Height, 1§ feet; first week of July; 
flowers, pale to bright blue, in large open heads, t 

Dianthus plumarius flore pleno. — Height, 9 inches; second week of 



276 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

June ; flowers, large, white or pink, very sweet scented, and two or 
three borne on a stem. A variety called Mrs. Simkins is especially 
desirable, being very double, white and deliciously perfumed, almost 
equaling a carnation. It blooms the fourth week of June. 

Dicentra spectabilis (Bleeding Heart) . — Height, 3 feet ; second week of 
May ; flowers, heart-shaped, red and white in pendulous racemes. 

Dictamnus albus. — Height, 1J to 2 feet ; second week of June ; flowers, 
white with an aromatic fragrance, and borne in large terminal 
racemes. A well-known variety has purple flowers with darker 
markings. 

Doronicum Caucasicum. — Height, 1 foot ; second week of May ; flowers, 
large, yellow, and borne singly. 

Doronicum plantagineum var. excelsum. — Height, 2 feet ; third week 
of May ; flowers, large and deep yellow, f 

Epimedium rubrum. — Height, 1 foot ; second week of May ; flowers, 
small, bright crimson and white, borne in a loose panicle. A very 
dainty and beautiful little plant. 

Erigeron speciosus* — Height, 1| feet ; second week of July ; flowers, 
large, violet-blue, with yellow centers, and borne in large clusters 
on long stems. 

Funkia subcordata (grandiflora) . — Height, l^feet; August; flowers, 
large and white, borne in racemes. The best funkia grown at 
Ottawa ; both leaves and flowers are handsome. 

Gaillardia aristata var. grandiflora.* — Height, 1| feet; third week of 
June ; flowers, large, yellow, with deep orange centers, and borne 
singly on long stems. The named varieties, Superba and Perfec- 
tion, are more highly colored and are of great merit.. These all 
continue blooming profusely until late in the autumn, f 

Gypsophila paniculata (Infant's breath) . — Height, 2 feet ; second 
week of July; flowers, small, white, borne profusely in large open 
panicles. 

Helenium autumnale* — Height, 6 to 7 feet; second week of July; 
flowers, large, deep yellow, borne in large heads ; very ornamental in 
late summer. 

Helianthus doronicoides* — Height, 6 to 7 feet ; second week of 
August ; flowers, large, bright yellow, and borne singly ; continues 
blooming for several weeks. 






THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — PERENNIALS 277 

Helianthus multiflorus* — Height, 4 feet ; flowers, large, double, 
bright yellow, and borne singly ; a very striking late-flowering per- 
ennial. 

Heuchera sanguinea* — Height, 1 to 1 \ feet ; first week of June ; 
flowers, small, bright, scarlet, borne in open panicles; continues 
blooming throughout the summer. 

Hemerocallis Dumortierii. — Height, 1J feet; second week of June; 
flowers, large, orange-yellow, with a brownish tinge on the outside, 
and three or four on a stem.t 
jXHemerocallis flava. — Height, 2 to 3 feet ; latter part of June ; flowers, 
bright orange-yellow and fragrant, t 

Hemerocallis minor. — Height, 1 to 1J feet; second week of July; 
flowers, medium size and yellow ; blooms later than the two preced- 
ing species and has a smaller flower and narrower foliage. 
^Hibiscus Moscheutos.* — Height, 5 feet ; third week of August ; flowers, 
very large, varying in color from white to deep pink. A variety 
called " Crimson Eye" is very good. This plant makes a fine show 
in late summer. 

Hypericum Ascyron (or pyramidatum) * — Height, 3 feet; fourth week 
of July ; flowers, large, yellow, and borne singly. 

Iberis sempervirens. — Height, 6 to 12 inches ; third week of May ; 
flowers, pure white, fragrant, and borne in dense flat clusters, t 

Iris Chamwiris. — Height, 6 inches ; fourth week of May ; flowers, 
bright yellow with brown markings. 

Iris flavescens. — Height, 1J to 2 feet; first week of June; flowers, 
lemon-yellow with brown markings. 

Iris Florentina. — Height, 2 feet ; first week of June ; flowers, very 
large, pale blue or lavender, sweet scented, t 

Iris Germanica. — Height, 2 to 3 feet; first week of June; flowers, 
very large, of elegant form; color, deep lilac and bright purple, 
sweet scented. There is a large number of choice varieties of this 
iris.f 

Iris Icevigata (Kcempferi). — Height, 1| to 2 feet; first week of July; 
flowers, purple and modified colors, very large and distinct in color 
and shape, t 

Iris pumila. — Height, 4 to 6 inches ; third week of May ; flowers, deep 
purple. . There are several varieties. 



278 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Iris Sibirica. — Height, 3 to 4 feet ; fourth week of May ; flowers, deep 

blue, borne on long stems in clusters of two or three. This species 

has many varieties. 
Iris variegata. — Height, 1 to 1| feet; first week of June; flowers, 

yellow and brown, veined with various shades of brown. 
Lilium auratum. — Height, 3 to 5 feet ; July ; flowers, very large, white, 

with a yellow central band on each petal, and thickly spotted with 

purple and red. The most showy of all lilies and a splendid flower. 

This has proved hardy at the Central Experimental Farm, although it 

has been reported tender in some localities.! 
Lilium Canadense* — Height, 2 to 3 feet ; latter part of May ; flowers, 

yellow to pale red with reddish spots, pendulous. 
Lilium elegans. — Height, 6 inches ; first week of July ; flowers, pale 

red; several varieties are better than the type. 
Lilium speciosum. — Height, 2 to 3 feet ; July ; flowers, large, white, 

tinged and spotted with deep pink and red. Hardier than Lilium 

auratum and almost as fine. There are several fine varieties, t 
Lilium superbum* — Height, 4 to 6 feet ; first week of July ; flowers, 

very numerous, orange red, thickly spotted with dark brown. 

An admirable lily for the rear of the border, t 
Lilium tenuifolium. — Height, 1 \ to 2 feet ; third week of June ; 

flowers, pendulous and bright scarlet. One of the most graceful of 

all lilies. 
Lilium tigrinum. — Height, 2 to 4 feet ; flowers, large, deep orange, 

spotted thickly with purplish black. 
Linum perenne. — Height, 1| feet; first week of June; flowers, large 

deep blue, borne in loose panicles, continuing throughout the summer. 
Lobelia cardinalis.* — Height, 2 to 3 feet ; August ; flowers, bright 

scarlet, borne in terminal racemes ; very showy. 
Lychnis Chalcedonica flore pleno. — Height, 2 to 3 feet ; first week of 

July ; flowers, bright crimson, double, and borne in terminal racemes. 
Lysimachia clethroides. — Height, 3 feet ; fourth week of July ; flowers, 

white, borne in long spikes. A very striking late-flowering perennial. 
Myosotis alpestris. — Height, 6 inches ; third week of May ; flowers, 

small, bright blue with a yellowish eye. A very profuse bloomer. 
(Enothera Missouriensis.* — Height, 1 foot ; fourth week of June ; flowers, 

very large, rich yellow, and borne singly, throughout the summer. 






THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — PERENNIALS 279 

PoBonia officinalis. — Height, 2 to 4 feet ; early part of July. The 

double-flowered varieties are the best, and can be obtained in several 

colors and shades, t 
Papaver nudicaule* — Height, 1 foot ; second week of May ; flowers, 

medium size, orange, white, or yellow, almost continuously until 

late autumn, t 
Papaver orientate. — Height, 2 to 3 feet ; first week of June ; flowers, 

very large, scarlet, and variously marked, according to variety, there 

being many forms. 
yPentstemon barbatus var. Torreyi* — Height, 2 to 3 feet ; first week of 

July ; flowers, deep red, borne in long spikes, very ornamental. 
Phtox amcena* — Height, 6 inches ; second week of May ; flowers, 

medium size, bright pink, in compact clusters. 
^Phlox decussata * (the garden perennial hybrids) . — Height, 1 to 3 feet ; 

third week of July ; flowers, of many beautiful shades and colors, are 

found in the large number of named varieties of this phlox, which 

continues to bloom until late in the autumn, t 
Phlox reptans.* — Height, 4 inches ; fourth week of May ; flowers, 

medium size, purple, and borne in small clusters. 
Phlox subulata* (setacea) . — Height, 6 inches ; third week of May ; 

flowers, medium size, deep pink, and borne in small clusters. 
Platycodon grandiflorum. — Height, 1§ to 2 feet; second week of July; 

flowers, very large, deep blue, borne singly or in twos.f 
Platycodon grandiflorum var. album. — A white-flowered variety of the 

above and makes a fine contrast to it when they are grown together. 

It blooms a few days earlier than the species. 
Platycodon Mariesii. — Height, 1 foot ; second week of July ; flowers, 

large and deep blue. 
Polemonium cceruleum* — Height, 2 feet ; second week of June ; 

flowers, deep blue, borne in terminal spikes. 
Polemonium reptans.* — Height, 6 inches ; third week of May ; flowers, 

medium in size, blue, and borne profusely in loose clusters. 
Polemonium Richardsoni* — Height, 6 inches ; third week of May ; 

flowers, medium in size, blue, borne profusely in pendulous 

panicles. 
Potentilla hybrida var. versicolor. — Height, 1 foot ; fourth week of 

June ; flowers, large, deep orange and yellow, semi-double. 



280 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Primula cortusoides. — Height, 9 inches ; third week of May ; flowers, 
small, deep rose, in compact heads. 

Pyrethrum (or Chrysanthemum) uliginosum. — Height, 4 feet ; Sep- 
tember ; flowers, large, white with yellow centers, and borne singly 
on long stems. 

Rudbeckia laciniata* (Golden Glow). — Height, 5 to 6 feet; August; 
flowers, large, lemon-yellow, double, and borne on long stems. 
One of the best of lately introduced perennials, t 

Rudbeckia maxima* — Height, 5 to 6 feet ; July and August ; flowers, 
large, with a long cone-shaped center and bright yellow rays, and 
borne singly. The whole plant is very striking. 

Scabiosa Caucascia. — Height, 1§ feet; first week of July; flowers, 
large, light blue, and borne singly on long stems, very freely through- 
out remainder of the summer. 

Solidago Canadensis * (Golden-rod) . — Height, 3 to 5 feet ; first week of 
August; flowers, small, golden yellow, and borne in dense pani- 
cles. 

Spircea (properly Aruncus) astilboides. — Height, 2 feet ; fourth week 
of June ; flowers, small, white, very numerous, and borne in many 
branched panicles. Both foliage and flowers are ornamental. 

Spircea (or Ulmaria) Filipendula. — Height, 2 to 3 feet ; third week of 
June; flowers, pure white, borne profusely in loose panicles. The 
foliage of this species is also very good. There is a double flowered 
variety which is very effective.! 

Spircea (Ulmaria) purpurea var. elegans. — Height, 2 to 3 feet; first 
week of July ; flowers, whitish with crimson anthers, borne very pro- 
fusely in panicles. 

Spircea Ulmaria ( Ulmaria pentapetala) . — Height, 3 to 4 feet ; second 
week of July ; flowers, very numerous, dull white, borne in large com- 
pound heads, having a soft, feathery appearance. 

Spircea venusta (Ulmaria rubra var. venusta). — Height, 4 feet; second 
week of July ; flowers, small, bright pink, borne profusely in large 
panicles, f 

Statice latifolia. — Height, 1| feet; first week of July; flowers, small, 
blue, borne very profusely in loose panicles. Very effective in the 
border. 

Thaliclrum aquilegifolium. — Height, 4 to 5 feet ; fourth week of 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS— BULBS 281 

June; flowers, small, white to purplish, very numerous and borne 
in large panicles. 
Trollius Europmus. — Height, 1J to 2 feet; fourth week of May; 
flowers, large, bright yellow, continuing a long time. 

4. Bulbs and Tubers 

(See the particular culture of the different kinds in Chapter 
VIII; and instructions for forcing on p. 345.) 

It is customary to write of bulbs and tubers together, be- 
cause the tops and flowers of all the bulbous and tuberous 
plants spring from large reservoirs of stored food, giving rise to 
similar methods of culture and of storage. 

Structurally, the bulb is very different from the tuber, how- 
ever. A bulb is practically a large dormant bud, the scales 
representing the leaves, and the embryo stem lying in the center. 
Bulbs are condensed plants in storage. The tuber, on the other 
hand, is a solid body, with buds arising from it. Some tubers 
represent thickened stems, as the Irish potato, and some thick- 
ened roots, as probably the sweet-potato, and some both stem 
and root, as the turnip, parsnip, and beet. Some tubers are very 
bulb-like in appearance, as the corms of crocus and gladiolus. 

Using the word "bulb" in the gardener's sense to include 
all these plants as a cultural group, we may throw them into 
two classes: the hardy kinds, to be planted in fall; and the 
tender kinds, to be planted in spring. 

Fall-planted bulbs. 

The fall-planted bulbs are of two groups: the "Holland 
bulbs" or early spring bloomers, as crocus, tulip (Fig. 255), 
hyacinth (Fig. 262), narcissus (Fig. 260), squill (Fig. 256), 
snowdrop; the summer bloomers, as lilies (Figs. 258, 259). 
The treatments of the two groups are so similar that they may 
be discussed together. 



282 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




255. Tulips, the warmest of spring flowers. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — BULBS 



283 



All these bulbs may be planted as soon as they are mature; 
but in practice they are kept till late September or October 
before they are put into 
the ground, as nothing 
is gained by earlier plant- 
ing, and, moreover, the 
ground is usually not 
ready to receive them 
until some other crop is 
removed. 

These bulbs are planted 
in the fall (1) because 
they keep better in the 
ground than when stored ; 
(2) because they will take 
root in fall and winter 
and be ready for the first warmth of spring; (3) and because 
it is usually impossible to get on the ground early enough in 
spring to plant them with much hope of success for that season. 

The bulbs lie dormant until spring, so far as outward ap- 
pearances go; they are mulched to insure that they will not 
start in warm weather of fall or winter, and to protect the 
ground from heaving. 




. ■ ■'-. ■ . ,- ■.-, -■--' .' ■■„■■•■■■■■ ■ ■ 



lH^Mtii 



256. One of the squills. — Scilla bifolia. 




257. A purple-flowered Amaryllis. — Lycoris squamigera, but known as 
Amaryllis Hallii. 



284 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



To secure good bulbs and of the desired varieties, the order 
should be placed in spring or early summer. For flower-garden 
effects, the large and mature bulbs should be secured; for 
colonizing in shrubbery or on the lawn, the smaller sizes may 
be sufficient. Insist that your bulbs shall be first class, for 
there is wide difference in the quality; even with the best of 
treatment, good results cannot be secured from poor bulbs. 




258. The Japanese gold-banded lib 



Lilium auratum. 



It is not generally known that there are autumn-flowering 
bulbs. Several species of crocus bloom in the fall, C. sativus 
(the saffron crocus) and C. speciosus being the ones generally 
recommended. The colchicums are excellent autumn-bloom- 
ing bulbs and should be more generally planted. C. autum- 
nale, rosy purple, is the usual species. These autumn-blooming 
bulbs are planted in August or early September and treated in 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — BULBS 



285 



general the same as other similar bulbs. The colchicums usu- 
ally remain in the ground several years in good condition. 

All kinds of bulbs are partial 
to a deep, rich, water-free soil. 
This is no small part of their 
successful culture. The spot 
should be well drained, either 
naturally or artificially. In 
flattish and rather moist lands 
the beds may be made above 
the surface, some 18 inches 
high, and bordered with grass. 
A layer of rough stones a foot 
deep is sometimes used in the 
bottom of ordinary beds for 
drainage, and with good re- 
sults, when other methods are 
not convenient, and when 
there is fear that the bed may 
become too wet. If the place 
is likely to be rather wet, 
place a large handful of sand 
where the bulb is to go and 
set the bulb on it. This will 
keep the water from standing 
around the bulb. Very good 
results may be had in heavy 
soil by this method. 

The soil for bulbs should be well enriched with old manure. 
Fresh manure should never be allowed close about the bulb. 
The addition of leafmold and a little sand also improves the 
texture of heavy soils. For lilies the leafmold may be omit- 
ted. Let the spading be at least a foot deep. Eighteen inches 
will be none too deep for lilies. To make a bulb bed, throw 




259. 



One of the common wild lilies. 
Lilium Philadelphicum. 



286 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



out the top earth to the depth of 6 inches. Put into the bottom 
of the bed about 2 inches of well-rotted manure and spade it 
into the soil. Throw back half of the top soil, level it off nicely, 
set the bulbs firmly on this bed, and then cover them with the 
remainder of the earth; in this way one will have the bulbs 
from 3 to 4 inches below the surface, and they will all be of 

uniform depth and will 
give uniform results if the 
bulbs themselves are well 
graded. The " design" 
bed may be worked out 
easily in this way, for all 
the bulbs are fully ex- 
posed after they are placed, 
and they are all covered 
at once. 

Of course, it is not nec- 
essary that the home gar- 
dener go to the trouble of 
removing the earth and 
replacing it if he merely 
w r ants good blooms; but if 
he wants a good bed as a 
whole, or a mass effect, he 
should take this pains. 
In the shrubberies and on 
the lawn he may " stick 
them in" here and there, seeing that the top of the bulb is 3 
to 6 inches beneath the surface, the depth depending on the 
size of the bulb (the bigger and stronger the bulb, the deeper 
it may go) and on the nature of the soil (they may go deeper 
in sand than in hard clay). 

As the time of severe winter freezing approaches, the bed 
should receive a mulch of leaves, manure or litter, to the depth 




260. Common species of narcissus. — 
a a. Narcissus Pseudo-Narcissus or daf- 
fodil ; b. Jonquil ; c. N. Poeticus. 






THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — BULBS 



287 



of 4 inches or more, according to the latitude and the kind of 
material. If leaves are used, 3 inches will be enough, because 
the leaves lie close together and may smother out the frost 
that is in the ground and let the bulbs start. It will be well 
to let the mulch extend 1 foot or more beyond the margins of 
the bed. When cold weather is past, half of the mulch should 
be removed. The remainder may 
be left on till there is no longer 
danger of frost. On removing the 
last of the mulch, lightly work over 
the surface among the bulbs with a 
thrust-hoe. 

If the weather happens to be very 
bright during the blooming season, 
the duration of the flowers may be 
prolonged by light shading — as 
with muslin, or slats placed above 
the beds. If planted where they 
have partial shade from surrounding 
trees or shrubbery, the beds will not 
need attention of this kind. 

Lilies may remain undisturbed 
for years. Crocuses and tulips may 
stand two years, but hyacinths 
should be taken up each year and 
replanted; tulips also will be better 
for the same treatment. Narcissus may remain for some years, 
or until they show signs of running out. 

Bulbs that are to be taken up should be left in the ground 
till the foliage turns yellow, or dies down naturally. This 
gives the bulbs a chance to ripen. Cutting off the foliage 
and digging too early is a not uncommon and serious mistake. 
Bulbs that have been planted in places that are wanted for 
summer bedding plants may be dug with the foliage on and 




261. The Belladonna lily. — 
Amaryllis Belladonna. 



288 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



heeled-in under a tree, or along a fence, to stand till ripened. 
The plant should be injured as little as possible, as the foliage 
of this year makes the flowers of the next. When the foliage 
has turned yellow or died down, the bulbs — after cleaning, and 

curing them for a few hours in 
the sun — may be stored in the 
cellar or other cool, dry place, to 
await fall planting. Bulbs that 
are lifted prematurely in this way 
should be planted permanently in 
the borders, for they will not make 
good flower-garden subjects the 
following year. In fact, it is usu- 
ally best to buy fresh, strong 
bulbs each year of tulips, hya- 
cinths, and crocuses if the best 
results are desired, using the old 
bulbs for shrubberies and mixed 
borders. 

Crocuses and squills are often 
planted in the lawn. It is not to 
be expected that they will last 
more than two to three years, 
however, even if care is taken not 
to cut the tops closely when the 
lawn is cut. The narcissus (in- 
cluding daffodils and jonquils) will 
remain in good condition for years 
in grassy parts of the place, if the tops are allowed to mature. 




262. The common Dutch 
hyacinth. 



List of outdoor fall-planted bulbs for the North. 

Crocus. Narcissus (including daffodil and jonquil). 

Hyacinth. Scilla, or squill. 

Tulip. Snowdrop {Galanthus). 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — BULBS 289 

Snowflake (Leucoium). 

Ohionodoxa. 

Hardy alliums. 

Bulbocodium. 

Camassia. 

Lily-of-the-valley. 

Winter aconite (Eranthis hy emalis). 

Dog-tooth violets (Erythronium) . 

Crown imperial (Fritillaria Imperialis) . 

Fritillary (Fritillaria Meleagris) . 

Trilliums. 

Lilies. 

Peonies, tuberous anemones, tuberous buttercups, iris, bleeding heart, 
and the like, may be planted in autumn and are often classed with 
fall-planted bulbs. 

Winter bulbs (p. 345). 

Some of these bulbs may be made to bloom in the greenhouse, 
window-garden, or living room in winter. Hyacinths are par- 
ticularly useful for this purpose, because the bloom is less 
affected by cloudy weather than that of tulips and crocuses. 
Some kinds of narcissus also " force" well, particularly the 
daffodil; and the Paper- white and " Chinese sacred lily" are 
practically the only common bulbs from which the home gar- 
dener may expect good bloom before Christmas. The method 
of handling bulbs for winter bloom is described under Win- 
dow-gardening (on p. 345). 

Summer bulbs. 

There is nothing special to be said of the culture of the so- 
called summer-blooming and spring-planted bulbs, as a class. 
They are tender, and are therefore planted after cold weather 
is past. For early bloom, they may be started indoors. Of 
course, any list of spring-planted bulbs is relative to the climate, 



290 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

for what may be planted in spring in New York perhaps may 
be planted in the fall in Georgia. 

The common "summer bulbs" are: — 



Gladiolus 


Calla 


Tuberose 


Calochortus 


Dahlia 


Alstremeria 


Canna 


Amaryllis 


Arum 


Colocasia 



5. The Shrubbery 
(Exclusive of coniferous evergreens and climbing plants.) 

The common hardy shrubs or bushes may be planted in fall 
or spring. In the northernmost parts of the country and in 
Canada spring planting is usually safer, although on well- 
drained ground and when thoroughly mulched the plants may 
even there do well if planted as soon as the leaves drop in fall. 
If the shrubs are purchased in spring, they are likely to have 
come from " cellared stock"; that is, the nurserymen dig 
much of their stock in fall and store it in cellars built for the 
purpose. While stock that is properly cellared is perfectly 
reliable, that which has been allowed to get too dry or which 
has been otherwise improperly handled comes on very slowly 
in the spring, makes a poor growth the first year, and much of 
it may die. 

In the planting of any kind of trees or shrubs, it is well to 
remember that nursery-grown specimens generally transplant 
more readily and thrive better than trees taken from the wild; 
and this is particularly true if the stock was transplanted in 
the nursery. Trees that transplant with difficulty, as the papaw 
or asimina, and some nut trees, may be prepared for removal 
by cutting some of their roots — and especially the tap-root, 
if they have such — a year or two in advance. 

It is ordinarily best to plow or spade the entire area in which 
the shrubs are to be set. For a year or two the ground should 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — SHRUBS 291 

be tilled between the shrubs, either by horse tools or by hoes and 
rakes. If the place looks bare, seeds of quick-growing flowers 
may be scattered about the edges of the mass, or herbaceous 
perennials may be used. 

The larger shrubs, as lilacs and syringas, may be set about 
4 feet apart; but the smaller ones should be set about 2 feet 
apart if it is desired to secure an immediate effect. If after a 
few years the mass becomes too crowded, some of the specimens 
may be removed (p. 76). 

Throw the shrubs into an irregular plantation, not in rows, 
and make the inner edge of the mass more or less undulating 
and broken. 

It is a good practice to mulch the plantation each fall with 
light manure, leafmold, or other material. Even though the 
shrubs are perfectly hardy, this mulch greatly improves the 
land and promotes growth. After the shrub borders have 
become two or three years old, the drifting leaves of fall will be 
caught therein and will be held- as a mulch (p. 82). 

When the shrubs are first planted, they are headed back one 
half or more (Fig. 45) ; but after they are established they are 
not to be sheared, but allowed to take their own way, and after 
a few years the outermost ones will droop and meet the green- 
sward (pp. 25, 26). 

Many rapid-growing trees may be utilized as shrubs by cut- 
ting them off near the ground every year, or every other year, 
and allowing young shoots to grow. Basswood, black ash, 
some of the maples, tulip tree, mulberry, ailanthus, paulownia, 
magnolias, Acer campestre, and others may be treated in this 
way (Fig. 50). 

Nearly all shrubs bloom in spring or early summer. If 
kinds blooming late in summer or in fall are desired, they may 
be looked for in baccharis, caryopteris, cephalanthus, clethra, 
hamamelis, hibiscus, hydrangea, hypericum, lespedeza, rhus 
(R. Cotinus), Sambucus Canadensis in midsummer, tamarisk. 



292 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Plants that bloom in very early spring (not mentioning such 
as birches, alders, and hazels) may be found in amelanchier, 
cydonia, daphne, dirca, forsythia, cercis (in tree list), benzoin, 
lonicera (L. fragrantissima) , salix (S. discolor and other pussy 
willows), shepherdia. 

Shrubs bearing conspicuous berries, pods, and the like, that 
persist in fall or winter may be found in the genera berberis 
(particularly B. Thunbergii), colutea, corylus, Crataegus, euony- 
mus, ilex, physocarpus, ostrya, ptelea, pyracantha (Plate XIX) 
pyrus, rhodotypos, rosa (R. rugosa), staphylea, symphori carpus, 
viburnum, xanthoceras. 

List of shrubbery plants for the North. 

The following list of shrubs (of course not complete) com- 
prises a selection with particular reference to southern Michi- 
gan and central New York, where the mercury sometimes 
falls to fifteen degrees below zero. Application is also made 
to Canada by designating species that have been found to be 
hardy at Ottawa. 

The list is arranged alphabetically by the names of the 
genera. 

The asterisk (*) denotes that the plant is native to North 
America. 

The double dagger ({) indicates species that are recommended 
by the Central Experimental Farms, Ottawa, Ontario. 

It is often difficult to determine whether a group should be 
listed among shrubs or trees. Sometimes the plant is not 
quite a tree and is yet something more than a shrub or bush; 
sometimes the plant may be distinctly a tree in its southern 
range and a shrub in its northern range; sometimes the same 
genus or group contains both shrubs and trees. In the follow- 
ing genera there are doubtful cases : aesculus, alnus, amelanchier, 
betula, caragana, castanea, cornus (C florida), Crataegus, elae- 
agnus, prunus, robinia. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — SHRUBS 293 

Dwarf buckeye, Msculus parviflora (Pavia macrostachya) * 

Attractive in habit, foliage, and flower; produces a large foliage mass. 

Alder. 

Several bushy species of alder are good lawn or border subjects, particu- 
larly in wet places or along streams, as A. viridis* A. rugosa* A. incana* and 
others. 

,.- June-berry, Amelanchier Canadensis* and others. 

Flowers profusely in spring before the leaves appear; some of them be- 
come small trees. 

Azalea, Azalea viscosa* and A. nudiflora.* 
Require partial shade, and a woodsy soil. 

Japanese azalea, A. mollis (or A. Sinensis). 

Showy red and yellow or orange flowers ; hardy north. 

^-Groundsel tree, "white myrtle/' Baccharis halimifolia* 

Native on the Atlantic seashore, but grows well when planted inland; 
valuable for its white fluffy "bloom" (pappus) in latest fall; 4-10 ft. 

Spice-bush, Benzoin odoriferum (Lindera Benzoin*) . 

Very early-blooming bush of wet places, the yellow, clustered, small flowers 
preceding the leaves ; 6-10 ft. 

Barberry, Berberis vulgaris. 

Common barberry ; 4-6 ft. The purple-leaved form (var. purpurea $) is 
popular. 

/'Thunberg's barberry, B. Thunbergii. J 

One of the best of lawn and border shrubs, with compact and attractive 
habit, deep red autumn foliage and bright scarlet berries in profusion in fall 
and winter; excellent for low hedges; 2— 4 ft. 

Mahonia, Berberis Aquifolium.*% 

Evergreen; needs some protection in exposed places; 1-3 ft. 
Dwarf birch, Betula pumila* 

Desirable for low places; 3-10 ft. 
Box, Buxus sempervirens. 

An evergreen shrub, useful for hedges and edgings in cities ; several varieties, 
some of them very dwarf. See page 220. 

Carolina allspice, sweet-scented shrub, Calycanthus floridus.* 
Dull purple, very fragrant flowers ; 3-8 ft. 



294 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Siberian pea-tree, Caragana arbor escens.% 

Flowers pea-like, yellow, in May; very hardy; 10-15 feet. 

Small pea-tree, C. pygmcea. 

Very small, 1-3 ft, but sometimes grafted on C. arbor escens. 

Shrubby pea-tree, C. frutescens.% 

Flowers larger than those of C. arbor escens ; 3-10 ft. 

Large-flowered pea-tree, C. grandiflora.% 

Larger-flowered than the last, which it resembles; 4 ft. 

Blue spirea, Caryopteris Mastacanthus. 

Flowers bright blue, in late summer and fall; 2-4 ft., but is likely to die 
to ground in winter. 

Chinquapin or dwarf chestnut, Castanea pumila.* 
Becomes a small tree, but usually bushy. 

Ceanothus, Ceanothus Americanus* 

A very small native shrub, desirable for dry places under trees; 2-3 ft. 
There are many good European garden forms of ceanothus, but not hardy in 
the northern states. 

Button-bush, Cephalanthus occidentalism 

Blossoms in July and August; desirable for water-courses and other low 
places; 4-10 ft. 

Fringe tree, Chionanthus Virginica* 

Shrub as large as lilac, or becoming tree-like, with fringe-like white flowers 
in spring. 

White alder, Clethra alnifolia* 

A very fine, hardy shrub, producing very fragrant flowers in July and 
August; should be better known; 4-10 ft. 

Bladder senna, Colutea arborescens. 

Pea-like yellowish flowers in June, and big inflated pods; 8-12 ft. 

European osier, Cornus alba (known also as C. Sibirica and C. Tatarica) . 
Branches deep red ; 4-8 ft. ; the variegated form J has leaves edged white. 

Bailey's osier, Cornus Baileyi* 

Probably the finest of the native osiers for color of twigs and foliage; 

5-8 ft. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — SHRUBS 295 

Red-twigged osier, Cornus stolonifera* 

The red tw ( igs are very showy in winter; 5 to 8 ft.; some bushes are 
brighter in color than others. 

Flowering dogwood, C. florida* 

Very showy tree or big shrub, desirable for borders of groups and belts. A 
red-flowered variety is on the market. 

Cornelian Cherry, Cornus Mas. 

Becoming a small tree, 15-20 ft.; flowers numerous in bunches, yellow, 
before the leaves; fruit, cherry-like, edible, red. 

Hazel or filbert, Corylus maxima var. purpurea. 

A well-known purple-leaved shrub, usually catalogued as C. Avellana 
purpurea. The eastern American species (C. Americana * and C. rostrata *) are 
also interesting. 

Cotoneaster. 

Several species of cotoneaster are suitable for cultivation in the middle and 
southern latitudes. They are allied to Crataegus. Some are evergreen. 
Some kinds bear handsome persistent fruits. 

Wild thorns, Crataegus punctata* C. coccinea*% C. Crus-galli*% and 
others. 

The native thorn apples or hawthorns, of numerous species, are amongst 
our best large shrubs for planting and should be much better known; 
6-20 ft. 

Japanese quince, Cydonia (or Pyrus) Japonica. 

An old favorite blooming in earliest spring, in advance of the leaves; not 
hardy at Lansing, Mich. ; 4^5 ft. 

"Maule's Japanese quince, C. Maulei.% 

Bright red; fruit handsome ; hardier than C. Japonica; 1-3 ft. 

Daphne, Daphne Mezereum. 

Produces rose-purple or white flowers in abundance in earliest spring before 
the leaves appear. Should be planted on the edges of groups ; leaves decidu- 
ous; 1-4 ft. 

Garland flower, D. Cneorum.% 

Pink flowers in very early spring and again in autumn; leaves evergreen; 
1-U ft. 



296 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Deutzia, Deutzia scabra (or crenata) and varieties. 

Standard shrubs; the variety "Pride of Rochester," with pinkish flowers, 
is perhaps the best form for the North ; 4-6 ft. Of this and the next there 
are forms with ornamental foliage. 

Small deutzia, D. gracilis. 

Very close little bush, with pure white flowers; 2-3 ft. 

Lemoine's deutzia, D. Lemoinei. 
A hybrid, very desirable; 1-3 ft. 

Weigela, Diervilla Japonica and other species. 

Free bloomers, very fine, in many colors, 4-6 ft.; the forms known as 
candida,% rosea,% and Sieboldii variegata,% are hardy and good. 

Leatherwood, Dirca palustris* 

If well grown, the leatherwood makes a very neat plant ; blossoms appear 
before the leaves, but not showy; 4-6 ft. 

v Russian olive, oleaster, Elceagnus angustifolia.% 

Foliage silvery white; very hardy; becoming a small tree, 15-20 ft. 

Wolf-willow, E. argentea.*% 

Large and silvery leaves; suckers badly; 8-12 ft. 

Goumi, E. longipes (sometimes called E. edulis). 

Attractive spreading bush, with handsome edible eranberry-like berries; 
5-6 ft. 

Burning-bush, Euonymus atropurpureus* 

Very attractive in fruit; 8-12 ft., or even becoming tree-like. 

Several other species are in cultivation, some of them evergreen. In the 
North, success may be expected with E. Europceus (sometimes a small tree), 
E. alatus, E. Bungeanus, E. latifolius, and perhaps others. 

Exochorda, Exochorda grandiflora. 

A large and very showy shrub, producing a profusion of apple-like white 
flowers in early spring ; 6-12 ft ; allied to the spireas. 

Forsythia, Forsythia viridissima. 

Blossoms yellow, appearing before the leaves ; requires protection in many 
places North; 6-10 ft. 

Drooping forsythia, F. suspensa. 

Makes an attractive mass on a bank or border; 6-12 ft. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — SHRUBS 297 

Dyer's weed, Genista tinctoria.% 

Yellow pea-like flowers in June; 1-3 ft. 

Silver-bell tree, Halesia tetraptera* 

Bell-shaped white flowers in May; 8-10 ft. 

Witch hazel, Hamamelis Virginiana.* 

Blossoms in October and November; unique and desirable if well grown; 
8-12 ft. 

Althea, Rose of Sharon, Hibiscus Syriacus (Althcea frutex) . 

In many forms, purple, red, and white, and perhaps the best of late summer- 
blooming shrubs; 8-12 ft. 

,- Hydrangea, Hydrangea paniculata, var. grandiflora.% 

One of the best and most showy small flowering shrubs ; 4-10 ft. 

Downy hydrangea, H. radiata* 

Attractive in both foliage and flower. 
Oak-leaved hydrangea, H. quercifolia* 

This is especially valuable for its luxuriant foliage; even if killed to the 
ground in winter, it is still worth cultivating for its strong shoots. 

The greenhouse hydrangea {H. hortensis in many forms) may be used as an 
outdoor subject in the South. 

St. John's wort, Hypericum Kalmianum*% H. prolificum* and H. 
Moserianum. 

Small undershrubs, producing bright yellow flowers in profusion in July 
and August; 2-4 ft. 

j Winter-berry, Ilex verticillata*% 

Produces showy red berries, that persist through the winter; should be 
massed in rather low ground ; flowers imperfect ; 6-8 ft. 

The evergreen hollies are not suitable for cultivation in the North; but in 
the warmer latitudes, the American holly {Ilex optica), English holly (/. 
Aquifolium), and Japanese holly (/. crenata) may be grown. There are several 
native species. 

Mountain laurel, Kalmia latifolia* 

One of the best shrubs in cultivation, evergreen, 5-10 ft., or even becom- 
ing a small tree south ; usually profits by partial shade ; thrives in a peaty 
or loamy rather loose soil, and said to be averse to limestone and clay; ex- 
tensively transferred from the wild for landscape effects in large private 
places; should thrive as far north as it grows wild. 



298 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Kerria, corchorus, Kerria Japonica. 

A bramble-like shrub, producing attractive yellow single or double flowers 
from July until September; twigs very green in winter. There is a varie- 
gated-leaved form. Good for banks and borders; 2-3 ft. 

Sand myrtle, Leiophyllum buxifolium.* 

Evergreen, more or less procumbent ; 2-3 ft. 

, Lespedeza, Lespedeza bicolor.% 

Reddish or purple small flowers in late summer and fall ; 4-8 ft. 

vp- Lespedeza, L. Sieboldii (Des?nodiu?n penduliflorum) .% 

Rose-purple large flowers in fall; killed to the ground in winter, but it 
blooms the following year; 4-5 ft. 

Lespedeza, L. Japonica {Desmodium Japonicum) . 

Flowers white, later than those of L. Sieboldii; springs up from the root. 

Privet, Ligustrum vulgar e, L. ovalifolium (L. Californicu?n), and L. 
Amurense.% 
Much used for low hedges and borders; 4-12 ft. ; several other species. 

Tartarian honeysuckle, Lonicera Tatarica.% 

One of the most chaste and comely of shrubs; 6-10 ft.; pink-flowered; 
several varieties. 

Regel's honeysuckle, L. spinosa {L. Alberti).% 
Blooms a little later than above, pink; 2-4 ft. 

Fragrant honeysuckle, L. fragrantissima. 

Flowers exceedingly fragrant, preceding leaves ; 2-6 ft. ; one of the earliest 
things to bloom in spring. 

There are other upright honeysuckles, all interesting. 

Mock-orange (Syringa incorrectly), Philadelphus coronarius.% 

In many forms and much prized; 6-12 ft. 

Other species are in cultivation, but the garden nomenclature is confused. 
The forms known as P. speciosus, P. qrandiflorus, and var. speciosissimus J are 
good; also the species P. pubescens* P. Gordonianus* and P. microphyllus* 
the last being dwarf, with small white very fragrant flowers. 

Nine-bark, Physocarpus opulifolius {Spiraea opulifolia)* 

A good vigorous hardy bush, with clusters of interesting pods following the 
flowers; the var. aurea% is one of the best yellow-leaved shrubs; 6-10 ft. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — SHRUBS 299 

Andromeda, Pieris floribunda* 

A small ericaceous evergreen ; should have some protection from the winter 
sun; for this purpose, it may be planted on the north side of a clump of 
trees; 2-6 ft. 

Shrubby cinquef oil, Potentilla fruticosa*% 

Foliage ashy; flowers yellow, in June; 2-4 ft. 

Sand cherry, Prunus pumila * and P. Besseyi* 

The sand cherry of sandy shores grows 5-8 ft.; the western sand cherry 
(P. Besseyi) is more spreading and is grown for its fruit. The European 
dwarf cherry (P . fruticosa) is 2-4 ft., with white flowers in umbels. 

Flowering almond, Prunus Japonica. 

In its double-flowered form, familiar for its early bloom; 3-5 ft; often 
grafted on other stocks, which are liable to sprout and become troublesome. 

Hop-tree, Ptelea trifoliata* 

Very interesting when bearing its roundish winged fruits; 8-10 ft., but 
becoming larger and tree-like. 

Buckthorn, Rhamnus cathartica. 

Much used for hedges; 8-12 ft. 
Alpine buckthorn, R. alpina. 

Foliage attractive; 5-6 ft. 
Rhododendron, Rhododendron Catawbiense* and garden varieties. 

Hardy in well-adapted locations, 3-8 ft., and higher in its native regions. 
Great laurel, R. maximum* 

A fine species for mass planting, native as far north as southern Canada. 
Extensively transplanted from the wild. 

White kerria, Rhodotypos kerrioides. 

White flowers in May and blackish fruit ; 3-5 ft. 

Smoke-tree (Fringe-tree erroneously), Rhus Cotinus. 

One of the best shrubs for massing; two colors are grown; the billowy 
"bloom," holding late in the season, is composed of flower stems rather 
than flowers ; size of large lilac bushes. 

Dwarf sumac, R. copallina* 

Attractive in foliage, and especially conspicuous in autumn from the bril- 
liant red of its leaves; 3-5 ft., sometimes much taller. 



300 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



Sumac, smooth and hairy, R. glabra* and R. typhina* 

Useful for the borders of large groups and belts. They may be cut down every 
year and allowed to sprout (as in Fig. 50). The young tops are handsomest. 
R. glabra is the finer species for this purpose. They usually grow 10-15 ft. 
tall. 

Osbeck's sumac, R. semialata var. Osbeckii. 

Strong bush, 10-20 ft., with leaf-rachis strongly winged, the foliage 
pinnately compound. 

Flowering, or fragrant currant, Ribes aureum.*% 

Well known and popular, for its sweet-scented yellow flowers in May ; 5- 
8 ft. 

Red-flowering currant, R. sanguineum* 

Flowers red and attractive; 5-6 ft. R. Gordonianum, recommendable, is 
a hybrid between R. sanguineum and R. aureum. 

Rose acacia, Ro- 

binia hispida*% 
Very showy in 
bloom; 8-10 ft. 

Roses, Rosa, va- 
rious species. 

Hardy roses are 
not always desir- 
able for the lawn. 
For general lawn 
purposes the older 
sorts, single or 
semi-double, and which do not require high culture, 
are to be preferred. It is not intended to include 
here the common garden roses; see Chapter VIII for 
these. It is much to be desired that the wild roses 
receive more attention from planters. Attention has 
been too exclusively taken by the highly improved 
garden roses. 

Japanese rose, Rosa rugosa.% 

Most excellent for lawn planting, as the foliage is 
thick and not attacked by insects (Fig. 263) ; white 
and pink flowered forms ; 4-6 ft. 

Wild swamp rose, R. Carolina.* 
263. Rosa rugosa. ^J g_g fa 



! ^Mm. iff 







THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — SHRUBS 301 

Wild dwarf rose, R. humilis* (R. lucida of Michigan). 

This and other wild dwarf roses, 3-6 ft., may be useful in landscape 
work. 

Say's Rose, R. acicularis var. Sayi* 
Excellent for lawns; 4-5 ft. 

,; Red-leaved rose, R. ferruginea (R. rubrifolia) .% 

Excellent foliage ; flowers single, pink; 5-6 ft. 

Japanese bramble, Rubus cratcegifolius. 

Valuable for holding banks; spreads rapidly; very red in winter; 3-4 ft. 

Flowering raspberry, mulberry (erroneously), R. odoratus* 

Attractive when well grown and divided frequently to keep it fresh; there 
is a whitish form; 3-4 ft. 

Japanese wineberry, R. phamicolasius. 

Attractive foliage and red hairy canes; fruit edible; 3-5 ft. 

Kilmarnock willow, Salix Caprcea, var. pendula. 

A small weeping plant grafted on a tall trunk; usually more curious than 
ornamental. 

Rosemary willow, S. rosmarinifolia% of nurserymen (R. incana prop- 
erly). 
6-10 ft. 

I Shining willow, S. lucida.* 

Very desirable for the edges of water; 6-12 ft. 

Long-leaved willow, S. interior* 

Our narrowest-leaved native willow; useful for banks; liable to spread too 
rapidly; 8-12 ft. 

Fountain willow, S. purpurea. 

Attractive foliage and appearance, particularly if cut back now and then to 
secure new wood ; excellent for holding springy banks; 10-20 ft. 

Pussy willow, S. discolor* 

Attractive when massed at some distance from the residence; 10-15 ft. 

Laurel-leaved willow, S. pentandra (S. laurifolia of cultivators). f 
See under Trees, p. 329. 
Many of the native willows might well be cultivated. 



302 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Elders, Sambucus pubens* and S. Canadensis* 

The former, the common "red elder," is ornamental both in flower and 
fruit. S. Canadensis is desirable for its profusion of fragrant flowers appear- 
ing in Juty ; the former is 6-7 ft. high and the latter 8-10 ft. 

Golden-leaved elder, S. nigra var. foliis aureis,% and also the cut-leaved 
elder, are desirable forms of the European species; 5-15 ft. 

Buffalo-berry, Shepherdia argentea* 

Silvery foliage; attractive and edible berries; 10-15 ft., often tree-like. 

Shepherdia, S. Canadensis.* 

Spreading bush, 3-8 ft., with attractive foliage and fruit. 

Early spirea, Spiraea arguta.% 

One of the earliest bloomers among the spireas; 2-4 ft. 

Three-lobed spirea, bridal wreath, S. Van Houttei.% 

One of the most showy early-flowering shrubs; excellent for massing; 
blooms a little later than the above; 3-6 ft. 

Sorbus-leaved spirea, S. sorbifolia (Sorbaria sorbifolia) .% 

Desirable for its late blooming, — late June and early July ; 4-5 ft. 

Plum-leaved spirea, S. prunifolia. 

Fortune's spirea, S. Japonica (S. cailosa),% 2 to 4 ft. 

Thunberg's spirea, S. Thunbergii. 

Neat and attractive in habit ; useful for border-hedges; 3-5 ft. 

St. Peter's Wreath, S. hypericifolia ; 4-5 ft. 

Round-leaved spirea, S. bracteata.% 
Follows Van Houttei; 3-6 ft. 

Douglas' spirea, S. Douglasii* 

Blossoms late, — in July; 4-8 ft. 

Hard-hack, S. tomentosa* 

Much like the last, but less showy; 3-4 ft. 

Willow-leaved spirea, S. salicifolia*\ 
Blooms late; 4-5 ft. 

Bladder-nut, Staphylea trifolia* 

Well-known rather coarse native shrub; 6-12 ft. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — SHRUBS 



303 



Colchican bladder-nut, S. Colchica. 
Good early flowering shrub; 6-12 ft. 




264. A spirea, one of the most serviceable flowering shrubs. 

Styrax, Styrax Japonica. 

One of the most graceful of flowering shrubs, producing fragrant flowers in 
early summer; 8-10 ft. or more. 



304 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Snow-berry, Symphoricarpos racemosus.*% 

Cultivated for its snow-white berries, that hang in autumn and early winter; 
3-5 ft. 

Indian currant, S. vulgaris* 

Foliage delicate ; berries red; valuable for shady places and against walls; 
4-5 ft. 

Common lilac, Syringa vulgaris.% (The name syringa is commonly mis- 
applied to the species of Philadelphus.) 
The standard spring-blooming shrub in the North ; 8-15 ft. ; many forms. 

Josika lilac, S. Josikcea.% 

Blooming about a week later than S. vulgaris; 8-10 ft. 

Persian lilac, S. Persica. 

More spreading and open bush than S. vulgaris; 6-10 ft. 

Japanese lilac, S. Japonica.% 

Blooms about one month later than common lilac; 15—20 ft. 

Rouen lilac, S. Chinensis (or Rothomagensis) .% 

Blooms with the common lilac; flowers more highly colored than those of 
S. Persica; 5-12 ft. 

Chinese lilacs, S. oblata% and S. villosa.% 

The former 10-15 ft. and blooming with common lilac; the latter 4-6 ft., 
and blooming few days later. 

Tamarisk, Tamarix of several species, particularly (for the North) 
T. Chinensis, T. Africana (probably the garden forms under this 
name are all T. parviflora), and T. hispida (T. Kashgarica) . 

All odd shrubs or small trees with very fine foliage, and minute pink flowers 
in profusion. 

Common snowball, Viburnum Opidus* % 

The cultivated snowball J is a native of the Old World; but the species 
grows wild in this country (known as High-bush Cranberry), J and is worthy of 
cultivation; 6-10 ft. 

Japanese snowball, V. tomentosum (catalogued as V. plicatum). 
6-10 ft, 

Wayfaring tree, V. Lantana.% 

Fruit ornamental ; 8-12 ft., or more. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — SHRUBS 305 

Plum-leaved haw, V. prunifolium.*% 
Leaves smooth and glossy ; 8-15 ft. 

Sweet viburnum or sheep-berry, Viburnum Lentago.* 
Tall coarse bush, or becoming a small tree. 

Arrow-wood, V. dentatum* 

Usually 5-8 ft., but becoming taller. 

Dockmackie, V. acerifolium* 
Maple-like foliage; 4-5 ft. 

Withe-rod, lilac viburnum, V. cassinoides.* 

2-5 ft. 

Other native and exotic viburnums are desirable. 

Xanthoceras, Xanthoceras sorbifolia. 

Allied to the buckeyes ; hardy in parts of New England ; 8-10 ft. ; hand- 
some. 

Prickly ash, Zanthoxylum Americanum* 

Shrubs for the South. 

Many of the shrubs in the preceding catalogue are also well 
adapted to the southeastern states. The following brief list 
includes some of the most recommendable kinds for the region 
south of Washington, although some of them are hardy farther 
North. The asterisk (*) denotes that the plant is native to 
this country. 

The crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia Indica) is to the South 
what the lilac is to the North, a standard dooryard shrub; 
produces handsome red (or blush or white) flowers all summer; 
8-12 feet. 

Reliable deciduous shrubs for the South are : althea, Hibiscus 
Syriacus, in many forms; Hibiscus Rosa-Sinensis ; Azalea 
calendulacea* mollis, and the Ghent azalea, (A . Pontica) ; blue 
spirea, Caryopteris Mastacanthus; European forms of ceano- 
thus; French mulberry, Callicarpa Americana*; calycanthus*; 
flowering willow, Chilopsis linearis*; fringe, Chionanthus Vir- 



306 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

ginica*; white alder, Clethra alnifolia*; corchorus, Kerria 
Japonica; deutzias, of several kinds; goumi, Elceagnus longipes; 
pearl bush, Exochorda grandiflora ; Japan quince, Cydonia 
Japonica; golden-bell, Forsythia viridissima ; broom, Spartium 
junceum ; hydrangeas, including H. Otaksa, grown under cover 
in the North; Jasminumnudiflorum; bush honeysuckles; mock 
orange, Philadelphus coronarius and grandiflorus* ; pomegran- 
ate; white kerria, Rhodotypos kerrioides; smoke tree, Rhus 
Cotinus ; rose locust, Robinia hispida*; spireas of several kinds; 
Stuartia pentagyna*; snowbeny, Symphoricarpos racemosus* ; 
lilacs of many kinds; viburnums of several species, including 
the European and Japanese snowballs; weigelas of the various 
kinds; chaste-tree, Vitex Agnus-Castus; Thunberg's barberry; 
red pepper, Capsicum frutescens; Plumbago Capensis; poinsettia. 
A large number of broad-leaved evergreen shrubs thrive in 
the South, such as: fetter bush, Andromeda floribunda*; 
some of the palms, as palmettoes* and chamserops; cycas and 
zamia* far South; Abelia grandiflora; strawberry tree, Arbutus 
Unedo; ardisias and aucubas, both grown under glass in the 
North; azaleas and rhododendrons (not only R. Catawbiense* 
but R. maximum* R. Ponticum, and the garden forms); Kalmia 
latifolia*; Berberis Japonica and mahonia*; box; Cley era Ja- 
ponica; cotoneasters and pyracantha; eleagnus of the types 
grown under glass in the North; gardenias; euonymus* ; hol- 
lies * ; anise-tree, Illicium anisatum; cherry laurels, Prunus or 
Laurocerasus of several species; mock orange (of the South), 
Prunus Caroliniana* useful for hedges; true laurel or bay-tree, 
Laurus nobilis; privets of several species; Citrus trifoliata, 
specially desirable for hedges; oleanders; magnolias* ; myrtle, 
Myrtus communis; Osmanthus (Olea) fragrans, a greenhouse 
shrub North; Osmanthus Aquifolium*; butcher's broom, 
Ruscus aculeatus; phillyreas*; Pittosporum Tobira; shrubby 
yuccas*; Viburnum Tinus and others; and the camellia in many 
forms. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — CLIMBERS 307 

6. Climbing Plants 

Vines do not differ particularly in their culture from other 
herbs and shrubs, except as they require that supports be pro- 
vided; and, as they overtop other plants, they demand little 
room on the ground, and they may therefore be grown in narrow 
or unused spaces along fences and walls. 

In respect to the modes of climbing, vines may be thrown 
into three groups, — those that twine about the support ; those 
that climb by means of special organs, as tendrils, roots, leaf- 
stalks; those that neither twine nor have special organs but 
that scramble over the support, as the climbing roses and the 
brambles. One must recognize the mode of climbing before 
undertaking the cultivation of any vine. 

Vines may also be grouped into annuals, both tender (as 
morning-glory) and hardy (as sweet pea) ; biennials, as adlumia, 
which are treated practically as annuals, being sown each year 
for bloom the next year; herbaceous perennials, the tops dying 
each fall down to a persisting root, as cinnamon vine and 
madeira vine; woody perennials (shrubs), the tops remaining 
alive, as Virginia creeper, grape, and wistaria. 

There is scarcely a garden in which climbing plants may not 
be used to advantage. Sometimes it may be to conceal obtru- 
sive objects, again to relieve the monotony of rigid lines. They 
may also be used to run over the ground and to conceal its 
nakedness where other plants could not succeed. The shrubby 
kinds are often useful about the borders of clumps of trees and 
shrubbery, to slope the foliage down to the grass, and to soften 
or erase lines in the landscape. 

In the South and in California, great use is made of vines, 
not only on fences but on houses and arbors. In warm coun- 
tries, vines give character to bungalows, pergolas, and other 
individual forms of architecture. 

If it is desired that the vines climb high, the soil should be 



308 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

fertile; but high climbing in annual plants (as in sweet peas) 
may be at the expense of bloom. 

The use of vines for screens and pillar decorations has in- 
creased in recent years until now they may be seen in nearly 
all grounds. The tendency has been towards using the hardy 
vines, of which the ampelopsis, or Virginia creeper, is one of the 
most common. This is a very rapid grower, and lends itself to 
training more readily than many others. The Japan ampelopsis 
(A. tricuspidata or Veitchii) is a good clinging vine, growing 
very rapidly when once established, and brilliantly colored 
after the first fall frosts. It clings closer than the other, but is 
not so hardy. Either of these may be grown from cuttings or 
division of the plants. 

Two recommendable woody twiners of recent distribution 
are the actinidia and the akebia, both from Japan. They are 
perfectly hardy, and are rapid growers. The former has large 
thick glossy leaves, not affected by insects or disease, growing 
thickly along the stem and branches, making a perfect thatch. 
It blooms in June. The flowers, which are white with a pur- 
ple center, are borne in clusters, followed by round or longish 
edible fruits. The akebia has very neat-cut foliage, quaint 
purple flowers, and often bears ornamental fruit. 

Of the tender vines, the nasturtiums and ipomeas and morn- 
ing-glories are the most common in the North, while the ad- 
lumia, balloon vine, passion vine, gourds, and others, are fre- 
quently used. One of the best of recent introduction is the 
annual hop, especially the variegated variety. This is a very 
rapid-growing vine, seeding itself each year, and needing little 
care. The climbing geraniums (Pelargonium peltatum and its 
derivatives) are much used in California. All the tender vines 
should be planted after danger of frost is past. 

So many good vines are now on the market that one may 
grow a wide variety for many uses. The home gardener should 
keep his eyes open for the wild vines of his neighborhood and 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — CLIMBERS 309 

add the best of them to his collection. Most of these natives 
are worthy of cultivation. Even the poison ivy makes a very 
satisfactory cover for rough and inaccessible places in the wild, 
and its autumn color is very attractive ; but of course its culti- 
vation cannot be recommended. 

Vines that cling closely to walls of buildings are Virginia 
creeper (one form does not cling well), Boston or Japanese ivy 
(Ampelopsis tricuspidata; also A. Lowii, with smaller foliage), 
English ivy, euonymus (E. radicans and the var. variegata) , and 
Ficus repens far south; others that cling less closely are 
trumpet creeper, and climbing hydrangea (Schizophragma hy- 
drangeoides) . 

Vines for trailing, or covering the ground, are periwinkle 
(Vinca), herniaria, moneywort (Lysimachia nummularia) , 
ground-ivy (Nepeta Glechoma), Rosa Wichuraiana, species of 
native greenbrier or smilax (not the so-called smilax of florists), 
Rubus laciniatus, dewberries, and also others that usually are not 
classed as vines. In the South, Japanese honeysuckle and 
Cherokee rose perform this function extensively. In California, 
species of mesembryanthemum (herbaceous) are extensively 
used as ground covers on banks. Page 86. 

For quickly covering brush and rough places, the many kinds 
of gourds may be used; also pumpkins and squashes, water- 
melons, Cucumis fcetidissima, wild cucumbers (Echinocystis lobata 
and Sicyos angulata), nasturtiums, and other vigorous annuals. 
Many of the woody perennials may be used for such purposes, 
but usually these places are only temporary. 

For arbors, strong woody vines are desired. Grapes are ex- 
cellent; in the South the muscadine and sfcuppernong grapes are 
adaptable to this purpose (Plate XV). Actinidia and wistaria 
are also used. Akebia, dutchman's pipe, trumpet creeper, 
clematis, honeysuckles, may be suggested. Roses are much 
used in warm climates. 

For covering porches, the standard vine in the North is Vir- 



310 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

ginia creeper. Grapes are admirable, particularly some of the 
wild ones. Japan honeysuckle is much used; and it has the 
advantage of holding its foliage well into the winter, or even 
all winter southward. Actinidia, akebia, wistaria, roses, dutch- 
man's pipe, and clematis are to be recommended; the large- 
flowered clematises, however, are more valuable for their bloom 
than for their foliage (C. paniculata, and the native species are 
better for covering porches). 

The annual vines are mostly used as flower-garden subjects, 
as the sweet pea, morning-glories, mina, moonflowers, cypress 
vine, nasturtiums, cobea, scarlet runner. Several species of 
convolvulus, closely allied to the common morning-glory, have 
now enriched our lists. For baskets and vases the maurandia 
and the different kinds of thunbergias are excellent. 

The moonflowers are very popular in the South, where the 
seasons are long enough to allow them to develop to perfection. 
In the North they must be started early (it is a good plan to 
soak or notch the seeds) and be given a warm exposure and good 
soil (see in Chap. VIII) . 

In the following lists, the plants native to the United States 
or Canada are marked by an asterisk (*) . 

Annual herbaceous climbers. 
(Grown each year from seed.) 

a. Tendril-climbers 
Adlumia (biennial).* 
Balloon Vine (Cardiospermum) .* 
Cobea. 
Gourds. 

Nasturtiums (Tropceolum) . 
Canary-bird Flower (Tropceolum peregrinum) . 
Sweet pea (Fig. 265). 
Wild cucumber.* 
Maurandia. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — CLIMBERS 



311 



Gourds or gourd-like plants, as, Coccinia Indica; Cucumis of several 

interesting species, as C. erinaceus, grossulariceformis, odoratissimus ; 

dipper or bottle gourd (Lagenaria) ; 

vegetable sponge, dish-cloth gourd, 

rag gourd (Luffa) ; balsam apple, 

balsam pear (Momordica) \ snake 

gourd {Trichosanthes) ; bryonopsis; 

Abobra viridiflora. 
All the above except sweet pea are 

quickly cut down by frost. 

b. Twiners 
Beans, Flowering. 
Cypress vine. 

Dolichos Lablab, and others. 
Hop, Japanese. 
Ipomcea Quamoclit (cypress vine) and 

others. 
Moonflower, several species. 
Morning-glory. 
Mina lobata. 
Thunbergia. 
Mikania scandens.* 

Butterfly pea, Centrosema Virginiana* 
Scarlet runner, Phaseolus multiflorus (perennial South) . 
Velvet or banana bean, Mucuna pruriens var. utilis (for the South), 




265. Sweet pea. 



Perennial herbaceous climbers. 

(The tops dying down in fall, but the root living over winter and 
sending up a new top.) 

a. Tendril-climbers or root-climbers 

Everlasting pea, Lathyrus latifolius. 

Clematis of various species, as C. aromatica, Davidiana, heraclecefolia 
(C. tubulosa), are more or less climbing. Most of the clematises 
are shrubs. 



312 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



May-pop, Passiflora incarnata.* 
Not reliable north of Virginia. 




266. Clematis Henryi. One-third natural size. 

Wild Gourd, Cucurbita foetidissima (Cucumis perennius)* 
Excellent strong rugged vine for covering piles on the ground. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — CLIMBERS 313 

Mexican rose, mountain rose, Antigonon leptopus. 

Root tuberous; a rampant grower, with pink bloom; outdoors South, 
and a conservatory plant North. 

Kenilworth ivy, Linaria Cymbalaria. 

A very graceful little perennial vine, re-sowing itself even where not hardy ; 
favorite for baskets. 

b. Herbaceous twiners 

Hop, Humulus Lupulus* 

Produces the hops of commerce, but should be in common use as an orna- 
mental plant. 

Chinese yam, cinnamon vine, Dioscorea divaricata (D. Batatas). 

Climbs high, but does not produce as much foliage as some other vines. 

..'Wild yam, D. villosa.* 

Smaller than the preceding; otherwise fully as good. 

Ground-nut, Apios tuberosa* 

A bean-like vine, producing many chocolate-brown flowers in August and 
September. 

Scarlet runner and White Dutch runner beans, Phaseolus multiflorus. 
Perennial in warm countries; annual in the North. 

Moonflowers, Ipomcea, various species. 

Some are perennials far South, but annual North. 

Hardy moonflower, Ipomoea pandurata* 

A weed where it grows wild, but an excellent vine for some purposes. 

Wild morning-glory, Rutland beauty, Convolvulus Septum* and Cali- 
fornia rose, C. Japonicus. 

The former, white and pink, is common in swales. The latter, in double 
or semi-double form, is often run wild. 

Madeira vine, mignonette vine, Boussingaultia baselloides. 

Root a large, tough, irregular tuber. 
Mikania, climbing hempweed, Mikania scandens.* 

A good compositous twiner, inhabiting moist lands. 



314 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Woody perennial climbers. 

(Climbing shrubs, the tops not dying down in fall except in climates 
in which they are not hardy.) 

a. Tendril-climbers, root-climbers, scramblers, and trailers 
./Virginia creeper, Ampelopsis quinquefolia* 

The best vine for covering buildings in the colder climates. Plants should 
be selected from vines of known habit, as some individuals cling much better 
than others. Var. hirsuta* strongly clinging, is recommended by the experi- 
mental station at Ottawa, Canada. Var. Engelmanni* has small and neat 
foliage. 

Japanese ivy, Boston ivy, A . tricuspidata (A . Veitchii) . 

Handsomer than the Virginia creeper, and clings closer, but is often injured 
by winter in exposedplaces, especially when young ; in northern regions, tops 
should be protected for first year or two. 

Variegated ivy, Ampelopsis heterophylla var. elegans (Cissus variegata). 

Handsome delicate hardy grape-like vines with mostly three-lobed blotched 
leaves and bluish berries. 

Garden clematis, Clematis of various species and varieties. 

Plants of robust and attractive habit, and gorgeous blooms ; many garden 
forms. C. Jackmani, and its varieties, is one of the best. C. Henryi (Fig. 
266) is excellent for white flowers. Clematises bloom in July and August. 

Wild clematis, C. Virginiana* 

Very attractive for arbors and for covering rude objects. The pistillate 
plants bear curious woolly balls of fruit. 

Wild clematis, C. verticillaris* 

Less vigorous grower than the last, but excellent. 

Japanese clematis, C. paniculata. 

The' best late-blooming woody vine, producing enormous masses of white 
flowers in late summer and early fall. 

Trumpet creeper, Tecoma radicans* 

One of the best of all free-flowering shrubs; climbs by means of roots; 
flowers very large, orange-scarlet. 

Chinese trumpet creeper, T. grandiflora {Bignonia grandiflora). 
Flowers orange-red; sometimes scarcely climbing. 



vv 



tf 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — CLIMBERS 315 

Bignonia, Bignonia capreolata* 

A good strong evergreen vine, but often a nuisance in fields in the South. 

rost grape, Vitis cordifolia* 

One of the finest of all vines. It is a very tall grower, producing thick, 
heavy, dark leaves. Its foliage often reminds one of that of the moon-seed. 
Does not grow readily from cuttings. 

Summer and river-bank grapes, V. bicolor* and V. vulpina (riparia).* 
The common wild grapes of the Northern states. 

Muscadine, scuppernong, Vitis rotundifolia* 

Much used for arbors in the Southern states (Plate XV). 

Ivy, Hedera Helix. 

The European ivy does not endure the bright sun of our winter; on the 
north side of a building it often does well; the best of vines for covering 
buildings, where it succeeds; hardy in favorable localities as far north as 
southern Ontario ; many forms. 

/ Greenbrier, Smilax rotundifolia* and S. hispida.* 

Unique for the covering of small arbors and summer-houses. 

Euonymus, E. radicans. 

A very close-clinging root-climber, excellent for low walls; evergreen; the 
variegated variety is good. 

Climbing fig, Ficus repens. 

Used in greenhouses North, but is hardy far South. 

Matrimony vine, boxthorn, Lycium Chinense. 

Flowering all summer; flowers rose-pink and buff, axillary, star-like, suc- 
ceeded by scarlet berries in the fall; stems prostrate, or scrambling; an old- 
fashioned vine on porches. 

Bitter-sweet, Solanum Dulcamara. 

A common scrambling or semi-twining vine along roadsides, with brilliant 
red poisonous berries; top dies down or nearly so. 

s Periwinkles, Vinca minor and V. major. 

The former is the familiar trailing evergreen myrtle, with blue flowers in 
early spring; in its variegated form the latter is much used for hanging 
baskets and vases. 



316 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Climbing hydrangea, Schizophragma hydrangeoides. 

Clings to walls by rootlets, producing white flowers in midsummer. 

Passion-flower, species of Passiflora and Tacsonia. 
Used in the South and in California. 

b. Woody twiners 
Actinidia, A. arguta. 

Very strong grower, with beautiful thick foliage that is not attacked by 
insects or fungi; one of the best vines for arbors. 

Akebia, A. quinata. 

Very handsome and odd Japanese vine; a strong grower, and worthy 
general planting. 

Honeysuckles, woodbine, Lonicera of many kinds. 
Japanese honeysuckle, L. Halliana (a form of L. Japonica) . 

10-20 ft. ; flowers, white and buff, fragrant mainly in spring and fall; 
leaves small, evergreen; stems prostrate and rooting, or twining and climb- 
ing. Trellises, or for covering rocks and bare places; extensively run wild in 
the South. Var. aurea reticulata is similar to the type, but with handsome 
golden appearance. 

Belgian Honeysuckle, L. Periclymenum var. Belgica. 

6-10 ft.; monthly; flowers in clusters, rosy red, buff within; makes a 
large, rounded bush. 

Coral or trumpet honeysuckle, L. semper vir ens. * 

6-1 5 ft. ; June ; scattering scarlet flowers through the summer ; with 
no support makes a large rounded bush ; for trellises, fences, or a hedge ; it is 
one of the list of hardy trees and shrubs recommended for Canada by the Ex- 
periment Station at Ottawa. 

Honeysuckle, L. Caprifolium, with cup-like connate leaves. 

Good native climbing honeysuckles are L. flava* Sullivanti* hirsuta* 
dioica* and Douglasi* 

Wistaria, Wistaria Sinensis and W. speciosa.* 

The Chinese species, Sinensis, is a superb plant ; flowers blue-purple ; there 
is a white-flowered variety. 

Japanese wistaria, W. multijuga. 

Flowers smaller and later than the Chinese, in looser racemes. 



V 



* 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — CLIMBERS 317 

Dutchman's pipe, Aristolochia macrophylla (A. Sipho)* 

A robust grower, possessing enormous leaves. Useful for covering verandas 
and arbors. 

Wax-work or false bitter-sweet, Celastrus scandens* 
Very ornamental in fruit; flowers imperfect. 

Japanese celastrus, C. orbiculatus (C. articulatus of the trade). 

C. articulatus and C. scandens are in the list of 100 trees and shrubs recom- 
mended by the Experiment Station at Ottawa for Canada. 

Moonseed, Menispermum Canadense* 

A small but very attractive twiner, useful for thickets and small arbors. 

Bokhara climbing polygonum, Polygonum Baldschuanicum. 

Hardy North, although the young growth may be killed ; flowers numerous, 
minute, whitish ; interesting, but does not make a heavy cover. 

Kudzu vine, Pueraria Thunbergiana (Dolichos Japonicus) . 

Makes very long growths from a tuberous root; shrubby South, but dies 
to the ground in the North. 

I Silk vine, Periploca Grceca. 

Purplish flowers in axillary clusters; long, narrow, shining leaves; rapid 
growing. 

Potato vine, Solanum jasminoides. 

A good evergreen vine South, particularly the var. grandiflorum. 

Yellow jasmine, Gelsemium sempervirens* 

A good native evergreen vine for the South, with fragrant yellow flowers. 

Malayan jasmine, Trachelospermum (or Rhynchospermum) jasminoides. 
A good evergreen vine for the South and in California. 

Climbing asparagus, Asparagus plumosus. 

Popular as an outdoor vine far South and in California. 

Jasmines, Jasminum of several species. 

~*The best known in gardens are J. nudiflorum, yellow in earliest spring, 
J. officinale, the jessamine of poetry, with white flowers, and J. Sambac, the 
Arabian jasmine (and related species) with white flowers and unbranched 
leaves; these are not hardy without much protection north of Washington 
or Philadelphia, and J. Sambac only far South. 



318 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



Bougainvillea, Bougainvillaea glabra and B. spectabilis. 

The magenta-flowered variety, sometimes seen in conservatories in the 
North, is a popular outdoor vine in the South and is profusely used in south- 
ern California. The red-flowered form is less seen, but is preferable in color. 

Wire-vine (polygonum of florists) , Muehlenbeckia complexa. 

Abundantly used on buildings and chimneys in southern California. 



Climbing roses. 

The roses do not climb nor possess any special climbing organs; 

therefore they must be provided with aitrellis or woven-wire 

fence. Some of the 
roses classed as climb- 
ing are such as only 
need good support, Fig. 
267. For culture of 
roses,seeChapterVIII. 
The most popular 
climbing or pillar rose 
at present is Crimson 
Rambler, but while it 
makes a great display 
of flowers, it is not 
the best climbing rose. 
Probably the best of 
the real climbing roses 
for this country, 
bloom, foliage, and 
habit all considered, 
are the derivatives of 
the native prairie rose, 
Rosa setigera (native 
as far north as On- 
tario and Wisconsin). 

Baltimore Belle and Queen of the Prairie belong to this class. 




267. Climbing rose, Jules Margottin. 




XV. Scuppernong grape, the arbor vine of the South. This plate shows the 
noted scuppernongs on Roanoke Island, of which the origin is unknown, 
but which were of great size more than one hundred years ago. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — TREES 319 

The climbing polyantha roses (hybrids of Rosa multiflora 
and other species) include the class of " rambler" roses that has 
now come to be large, including not only the Crimson Ram- 
bler, but forms of other colors, single and semi-double, and 
various climbing habits; a very valuable and hardy class of 
roses, particularly for trellises. 

The Memorial rose (R. Wichuraiana) is a trailing, half-ever- 
green, white-flowered species, very useful for covering banks and 
rocks. Derivatives of this species of many kinds are now avail- 
able, and are valuable. 

The Ayrshire roses (R. arvensis var. capreolata) are profuse 
but rather slender growers, hardy North, bearing double white 
or pink flowers. 

The Cherokee rose (R. laevigata or R. Sinica) is extensively 
naturalized in the South, and much prized for its large white 
bloom and shining foliage; not hardy in the North. 

The Banksia rose (R. Banksice) is a strong climbing rose for 
the South and California with yellow or white flowers in 
clusters. A larger-flowered form (R. Fortuneana) is a hybrid of 
this and the Cherokee rose. 

The climbing tea and noisette roses, forms of R. Chinensis and 
R. Noisettiana, are useful in the open in the South. 

7. Trees for Lawns and Streets 

A single tree may give character to an entire home property; 
and a place of any size that does not have at least one good tree 
usually lacks any dominating landscape note. 

Likewise, a street that is devoid of good trees cannot be the 
best residential section; and a park that lacks well-grown trees 
is either immature or barren. 

Although the list of good and hardy lawn and street trees is 
rather extensive, the number of kinds generally planted and 
recognized is small. Since most home places can have but few 
trees, and since they require so many years to mature, it is 



320 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

natural that the home-maker should hesitate about experiment- 
ing, or trying kinds that he does not himself know. So the home- 
maker in the North plants maples, elms, and a white birch, and 
in the South a magnolia and China-berry. Yet there are num- 
bers of trees as useful as these, the planting of which might give 
our premises and streets a much richer expression. 

It is much to be desired that some of the trees with " strong" 
and rugged characters be introduced into the larger grounds; 
such, for example, as the hickories and oaks. These may often 
transplant with difficulty, but the effort to secure them is worth 
the expenditure. Good trees of oaks, and others supposed to be 
difficult to transplant, may now be had of the leading nursery- 
men. The pin oak (Quercus palustris) is one of the best street 
trees and is now largely planted. 

It is at least possible to introduce a variety of trees into a city 
or village, by devoting one street or a series of blocks to a single 
kind of tree, — one street being known by its lindens, one by its 
plane-trees, one by its oaks, one by its hickories, one by its native 
birches, beech, coffee-tree, sassafras, gum or liquidambar, tulip 
tree, and the like. There is every reason why a city, particu- 
larly a small city or a village, should become to some extent an 
artistic expression of its natural region. 

The home-maker is fortunate if his area already possesses 
well-grown large trees. It may even be desirable to place the 
residence with reference to such trees (Plate VI) ; and the plan- 
ning of the grounds should accept them as fixed points to which 
to work. The operator will take every care to preserve and 
safeguard sufficient of the standing trees to give the place singu- 
larity and character. 

The care of the tree should include not only the protecting of 
it from enemies and accidents, but also the maintaining of its 
characteristic features. For example, the natural rough bark 
should be maintained against the raids of tree-scrapers; and 
the grading should not be allowed to disguise the natural bulge 






THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — TREES 321 

of the tree at the base, for a tree that is covered a foot or two above 
the natural line is not only in danger of being killed, but it 
looks like a post. 

The best shade trees are usually those that are native to the 
particular region, since they are hardy and adapted to the soil 
and other conditions. Elms, maples, basswoods, and the like 
are nearly always reliable. In regions in which there are seri- 
ous insect enemies or fungous diseases, the trees that are most 
likely to be attacked may be omitted. For instance, in parts of 
the East the chestnut bark-disease is a very great menace; 
and it is a good plan in such places to plant other trees than 
chestnuts. 

A good shade tree is one that has a heavy foliage and dense 
head, and that is not commonly attacked by repelling insects 
and diseases. Trees for shade should ordinarily be given suffi- 
cient room that they may develop into full size and symmetrical 
heads. Trees may be planted as close as 10 or 15 feet apart for 
temporary effect; but as soon as they begin to crowd they should 
be thinned, so that they develop their full characteristics as 
trees. 

Trees may be planted in fall or spring. Fall is desirable, 
except for the extreme North, if the land is well drained and pre- 
pared and if the trees may be got in early; but under usual con- 
ditions, spring planting is safer, if the stock has been wintered 
well (see discussion under Shrubs, p. 290). Planting and 
pruning are discussed on pp. 124 and 139. 

If one desires trees with conspicuous bloom, they should be 
found among the magnolias, tulip trees, kcelreuteria, catalpas, 
chestnuts, horse-chestnut and buckeyes, cladrastis, black or 
yellow locust, wild black cherry, and less conspicuously in the 
lindens; and also in such half -trees or big shrubs as cercis, 
cytisus, flowering dogwood, double-flowered and other forms 
of apples, crab-apples, cherries, plums, peaches, hawthorn or 
Crataegus, amelanchier, mountain ash. 



322 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Among drooping or weeping trees the best may be found in 
the willows (Salix Babylonica and others), maples (Wier's), 
birch, mulberry, beech, ash, elm, cherry, poplar, mountain ash. 

Purple-leaved varieties occur in the beech, maple, elm, oak, 
birch, and others. 

Yellow-leaved and tricolors occur in the maple, oak, poplar, 
elm, beech, and other species. 

Cut-leaved forms are found in birch, beech, maple, alder, oak, 
basswood, and others. 

List of hardy deciduous trees for the North. 

(The genera are arranged alphabetically. Natives are marked 
by * ; good species for shade trees by f ; those recommended by 
the Experiment Station at Ottawa, Ontario, by J.) 

In a number of the genera, the plants may be shrubby rather 
than arboreus in some regions (see the Shrub list), as in acer 
(A. Ginnala, A. spicatum), sesculus, betula (B. pumila), car- 
pinus, castanea (C. pumila), catalpa (C. ovata), cercis, magnolia 
(M. glauca particularly), ostrya, prunus, pyrus, salix, sorbus. 

Norway maple, Acer platanoides.-\% 

One of the finest medium-sized trees for single lawn specimens; there are 
several horticultural varieties. Var. Schwedleri% is one of the best of purple- 
leaved trees. The Norway maple droops too much and is too low-headed for 
roadside planting. 

Black sugar maple, A. nigrum*^ 

Darker and softer in aspect than the ordinary sugar maple. 

Sugar maple, A. saccliarum*^% 

This and the last are among the very best roadside trees. 

Silver maple, A. saccharinum (A. dasycarpum) .*f 

Desirable for water-courses and for grouping; succeeds on both wet and 
dry lands. 

Wier's cut-leaved silver maple, A. saccharinum var. Wieri.-\% 

Light and graceful; especially desirable for pleasure grounds. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — TREES 323 

Red, soft, or swamp maple, A . rubrum* 

Valuable for its spring and autumn colors, and for variety in grouping. 

{Sycamore maple, A. Pseudo-platanus. 

A slow grower, to be used mostly as single specimens. Several horticul- 
tural varieties. 

English maple, A . campestre. 

A good medium-sized" tree of slow growth, not hardy on our northern 
borders; see under Shrubs (p. 291). 

Japan maple, A . palmatum (A . polymorphum) . 

In many forms, useful for small lawn specimens; does not grow above 
10-20 ft. 

Siberian maple, A. Ginnala.% 

Attractive as a lawn specimen when grown as a bush; the autumn color 
is very bright ; small tree or big shrub. 

Mountain maple, A. spicatum* 
Very bright in autumn. 

Box-elder, Acer Negundo (Negundo aceroides or fraxinifolium) .*f 

Very hardy and rapid growing; much used in the West as a windbreak, 
but not strong in ornamental features. 

Horse chestnut, Msculus Hippocastanum.^X 

Useful for single specimens and roadsides; many forms. 

Buckeye, M. octandra (2E.flava)*% 
Ohio buckeye, M. glabra* 
Red buckeye, M. carnea (2E. rubicunda). 
Ailanthus, Ailanthus glandulosa. 

A rapid grower, with large pinnate leaves; the staminate plant possesses 

a disagreeable odor when it flowers; suckers badly; most useful as a shrub; 

see the same under Shrubs (also Fig. 50). 

Alder, Alnus glutinosa. 

The var. imperialist is one of the best cut-leaved small trees. 

European birch, Betula alba. 

Cut-leaved weeping birch, B. alba var. laciniata pendula.% 

American white birch, B. populifolia* 

Paper, or canoe birch, B. papyrifera.* 



324 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Cherry birch, B. lenta* 

Well-grown specimens resemble the sweet cherry ; both this and the yellow 
birch {B. lutea*) make attractive light-leaved trees; they are not appreciated. 

Hornbeam or blue beech, Carpinus Americana* 
Chestnut, Castanea saliva^ and C. Americana*^ 
/Showy catalpa, Catalpa speciosa.'W 

Very dark, soft-foliaged tree of small to medium size; showy in flower; 
for northern regions should be raised from northern-grown seed. 

Smaller catalpa, C. bignonioides.-f 

Less showy than the last, blooming a week or two later ; less hardy. 

Japanese catalpa, C. ovata (C. Kcempferi).% 

In northern sections often remains practically a bush. 

Nettle-tree, Celtis occidentalism 

tsura-tree, Cercidiphyllum Japonicum.% 
A small or medium-sized tree of very attractive foliage and habit. 

Red-bud, or Judas-tree, Cercis Canadensis* 

Produces a profusion of rose-purple pea-like flowers before the leaves 
appear; foliage also attractive. 

Yellow-wood, or virgilia, Cladrastis tinctoria* 
One of the finest hardy flowering trees. 

Beech, Fagus ferruginea*^ 

Specimens which are symmetrically developed are among our best lawn 
trees; picturesque in winter. 

European beech, F. sylvatica.^ 

Many cultural forms, the purple-leaved being everywhere known. There 
are excellent tricolored varieties and weeping forms. 

Black ash, Fraxinus nigra (F. sambucifolia)*^ 

One of the best of the light-leaved trees; does well on dry soils, although 
native to swamps; not appreciated. 

White ash, F. Americana*1[ 
European ash, F. excelsior. | 

There is a good weeping form of this. 

Maiden-hair tree, Ginkgo biloba (Salisburia adiantifolia) .% 

Very odd and striking; to be used for single specimens or avenues. 



/ 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — TREES 325 

Honey locust, Gleditschia triacanthos*-\ 

Tree of striking habit, with big branching thorns and very large pods; 
there is also a thornless form. 

-Kentucky coffee-tree, Gymnocladus Canadensis.* 

Light and graceful ; unique in winter. 

Bitternut, Hicoria minima (or Carya amara).* 

Much like black ash in aspect ; not appreciated. 

Hickory, Hicoria ovata (or Carya alba)*-fl and others. 
Pecan, H. Pecan*\ 

Hardy in places as far north as New Jersey, and reported still farther. 

Butternut, Juglans cinerea* 

Walnut, J. nigra* 

Varnish-tree, Koelreuteria paniculata. 

A medium-sized tree of good character, producing a profusion of golden- 
yellow flowers in July; should be better known. 

European larch, Larix decidua (L. Europcea).% 
American larch or tamarack, L. Americana* 
/Gum-tree, sweet gum, Liquidambar styraciflua*^ 

A good tree, reaching as far north as Connecticut, and hardy in parts 
of western New York although not growing large; foliage maple-like; a 
characteristic tree of the South. 

Tulip tree or whitewood, Liriodendron Tulipifera.*f 

Unique in foliage and flower and deserving to be more planted. 

Cucumber tree, Magnolia acuminata.*^ 
Native in the Northern states; excellent. 

White bay-tree, M. glauca.* 

Very attractive small tree, native along the coast to Massachusetts; where 
not hardy, the young growth each year is good. 

Of the foreign magnolias hardy in the North, two species and one group of 
hybrids are prominent : M. stellata (or M. Halleana) and M . Yulan (or M . 
conspicua), both white-flowered, the former very early and having 9-18 
petals and the latter (which is a larger tree) having 6-9 petals; M. Sou- 
langeana, a hybrid group including the forms known as Lennei, nigra, Nor- 
bertiana, speciosa, grandis. All these magnolias are deciduous and bloom 
before the leaves appear. 



326 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Mulberry, Morus rubra* 

White mulberry, M. alba. 

Russian mulberry, M . alba var. Tatarica. 

Teas' weeping mulberry is a form of the Russian. 

Pepperidge or gum-tree, Nyssa sylvatica* 

One of the oddest and most picturesque of our native trees; especially 
attractive in winter; foliage brilliant red in autumn; most suitable for low 
lands. 

Iron-wood, hop hornbeam, Ostrya Virginica.* 
A good small tree, with hop-like fruits. 

Sourwood, sorrel-tree, Oxydendrum arboreum.* 

Interesting small tree native from Pennsylvania in the high land south, and 
should be reliable where it grows wild. 

Plane or buttonwood, Platanus occidentalis.*-\% 

Young or middle-aged trees are soft and pleasant in aspect, but they 
soon become thin and ragged below; unique in winter. 

European plane-tree, P. orientalist 

Much used for street planting, but less picturesque than the American; 
several forms. 

Aspen, Populus tremuloides* 

Very valuable when well grown; too much neglected (Fig. 33). Most of 
the poplars are suitable for pleasure grounds, and as nurses for slower grow- 
ing and more emphatic trees (p. 41). 

Large-toothed aspen, P. grandidentata* 

Unique in summer color; heavier in aspect than the above; old trees 
become ragged. 

Weeping poplar, P. grandidentata, var. pendula. 

An odd, small tree, suitable for small places, but, like all weeping trees, 
likely /,q be planted too freely. 

Cottonwood, P. deltoides (P. monilifera).* 

The staminate specimens, only, should be planted if possible, as the cotton 
of the seed-pods is disagreeable when carried by winds; var. aurea% is one 
of the good golden-leaved trees. 

Balm of Gilead, P. balsarnifera* and var. candicans* 

Desirable for remote groups or belts. Foliage not pleasant in color. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — TREES 327 

Lombardy poplar, P. nigra, var. Italica. 

Desirable for certain purposes, but used too indiscriminately (p. 41) ; it is 
likely to be short-lived in northern climates. 

White poplar, abele, P. alba. 
Sprouts badly; several forms. 

Bolle's poplar, P. alba, var. Bolleana. 

Habit much like the Lombardy ; leaves curiously lobed, very white beneath, 
making a pleasant contrast (p. 218). 

Certinensis poplar, P. laurifolia (P. Certinensis) . 

A very hardy Siberian species, much like P. deltoides, useful for severe 
climates. 

Wild black cherry, Prunus serotina.* 
European bird cherry, Prunus Padus. 

A small tree much like the choke cherry, but a freer grower, with larger 
flowers, and racemes which appear about a week later. 

Choke cherry, P. Virginiana.* 
Very showy while in flower. 

Purple plum, Prunus cerasifera, var. atropurpurea (var. Pissardi) . 
One of our most reliable purple-leaved trees. 

Rose-bud cherry, P. pendula (P. subhirtella) . 

A tree of drooping habit and beautiful rose-pink flowers preceding the 
leaves. 

Japanese flowering cherry, P. Pseudo-Cerasus. 

In many forms, the famous flowering cherries of Japan, but not reliable 
North. 

There are ornamental-flowered peaches and cherries, more curious and 
interesting than useful. 

Wild crab, Pyrus coronaria* and P. Ioensis.* 

Very showy while in flower, blooming after apple blossoms have fallen; 
old specimens become picturesque in form. P. Ioensis flore pleno% (Bechtel's 
Crab) is a handsome double form. 

Siberian crab, P. baccata.% 

Excellent small tree, both in flower and fruit. 



328 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Flowering crab, Pyrus floribunda. 

Pretty both in flower and fruit; a large shrub or small tree; various 
forms. 

Hall's crab, P. Halliana (P. Parkmani). 

One of the best of the flowering crabs, particularly the double form. 
Various forms of double-flowering apple are on the market. 

Swamp white oak, Quercus bicolor*^ 

A desirable tree, usually neglected; very picturesque in winter. 

Bur oak, Q. macrocarpa.*^ 

Chestnut oak, Q. Prinus*-\ and especially the closely related Q. 

Muhlenbergii (or Q. acuminata) *f 
White oak, Q. alba*^ 
Shingle oak, Q. imbricaria.*\ 
Scarlet oak, Q. coccinea*\ 

This and the next two are glossy-leaved, and are desirable for bright 
planting. 

Black oak, Q. velutina (Q. tinctoria) *-\ 
Red oak, Q. rubra*^% 
Pin oak, Q. palustris*-\ 

Excellent for avenues ; transplants well. 

Willow oak, Q. Phellos* 
English oak, Q. Robur. 

Many forms represented by two types, probably good species, Q. pedun- 
culata (with stalked acorns) and Q. sessiliflora (with stalkless acorns). Some 
of the forms are reliable in the Northern states. 

The oaks are slow growers and usually transplant with difficulty. Natural 
specimens are most valuable. A large well-grown oak is one of the grandest 
of trees. 

Locust, Robinia Pseudacacia.*"\ 

Attractive in flower; handsome as single specimens when young; many 
forms; used also for hedges. 

Peach-leaved willow, Salix amygdaloides.* 

Very handsome small tree, deserving more attention. This and the next 
valuable in low places or along water-courses. 

Black willow, S. nigra.* 






THE ORNAMENTAL rLANTS — TREES 329 

Weeping willow, S. Bahylonica. 

To be planted sparingly, preferably near water; the sort known as the 
Wisconsin weeping willow appears to be much hardier than the common 
type; many forms. 

White willow, S. alba, and various varieties, one of which is the Golden 
willow. 

Tree willows are most valuable, as a rule, when used for temporary plan- 
tations or as nurses for better trees (p. 42). 

Laurel-leaved willow, S. laurifolia.% 

A small tree used in cold regions for shelter-belts; also a good ornamental 
tree. See also under Shrubs (p. 301). 

Sassafras, Sassafras officinalis*^ 

Suitable in the borders of groups or for single specimens; peculiar in 
winter; too much neglected. 

Rowan or European mountain ash, Sorbus Aucuparia (Pyrus 

Aucuparia). X 
Service-tree, S. domestica. 

Fruit handsomer than that of the mountain ash and more persistent; 

small tree. 

Oak-leaved mountain ash, S. hybrida (S. quercifolia). 

Small tree, deserving to be better known. 

Bald cypress, Taxodium distichum* 

Not entirely hardy at Lansing, Mich. ; often becomes scraggly after fif- 
teen or twenty years, but a good tree ; many cultural forms. 

American linden or basswood, Tilia Americana*^ 

Very valuable for single trees on large lawns, or for roadsides. 

European linden, T. vulgaris and T. platyphyllos (T. Europcea of 
nurserymen is probably usually the latter) . f 
Has the general character of the American basswood. 

European silver linden, T. tomentosa and varieties. f 

Very handsome; leaves silvery white beneath; among others is a weep- 
ing variety. 

/American elm, Ulmus Americana* f 

One of the most graceful and variable of trees ; useful for many purposes 
and a standard street tree. 



330 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Cork elm, U. racemosa* 

Softer in aspect than the last, and more picturesque in winter, having promi- 
nent ridges of bark on its branches ; slow grower. 

Red or slippery elm, U. fulva.* 

Occasionally useful in a group or shelter-belt ; a stiff grower. 

English elm, U. campestris, and Scotch or wych elm, U. scabra (U. 

mantana) . 

Often planted, but are inferior to U. Americana for street planting, al- 
though useful in collections. These have many horticultural forms. 

Non-coniferous trees for the South. 

Among deciduous trees for the region of Washington and 
south may be mentioned: Acer, the American and European 
species as for the North; Catalpa bignonioides and especially 
C. speciosa; celtis; cercis, both American and Japanese; flower- 
ing dogwood, profusely native; white ash; ginkgo; kcelreuteria; 
sweet gum (liquidambar) ; American linden; tulip tree; mag- 
nolias much as for the North; China-berry (Melia Azedarach); 
Texas umbrella-tree (var. umbraculiformis of the preceding); 
mulberries; oxydendrum; paulownia; oriental plane-tree; 
native oaks of the regions; Robinia Pseudacacia ; weeping 
willow; Sophora Japonica; Sterculia platanifolia ; American 
elm. 

Broad-leaved evergreens of real tree size useful for the South 
may be found among the cherry laurels, magnolias, and oaks. 
Among the cherry laurels are : Portugal laurel (Prunus Lusi- 
tanica), English cherry laurel in several forms (P. Laurocerasus) , 
and the " mock-orange " or "wild orange" (P. Caroliniana). 
In magnolia, the splendid M. grandiflora is everywhere used. 
In oaks, the live-oak (Quercus Virginiana, known also as 
Q. virens and Q. semper vir ens) is the universal species. The 
cork oak (Q. Suber) is also recommended. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — CONIFERS 331 

8. Coniferous Evergreen Shrubs and Trees 

In this country the word " evergreen" is understood to mean 
coniferous trees with persistent leaves, as pines, spruces, firs, 
cedars, junipers, arborvitse, retinosporas, and the like. These 
trees have always been favorites with plant lovers, as they have 
very distinctive forms and other characteristics. Many of 
them are of the easiest culture. 

It is a common notion that, since spruces and other conifers 
grow so symmetrically, they will not stand pruning; but this is 
an error. They may be pruned with as good effect as other 
trees, and if they tend to grow too tall, the leader may be stopped 
without fear. A new leader will arise, but in the meantime the 
upward growth of the tree will be somewhat checked, and the 
effect will be to make the tree dense. The tips of the branches 
may also be headed in with the same effect. The beauty of an 
evergreen lies in its natural form; therefore, it should not be 
sheared into unusual shapes, but a gentle trimming back, as 
suggested, will tend to prevent the Norway spruce and others 
from growing open and ragged. After the tree attains some 
age, 4 or 5 in. may be taken off the ends of the main branches 
every year or two (in spring before growth begins) with good 
results. This slight trimming is ordinarily done with Waters's 
long-handled pruning shears. 

There is much difference of opinion as to the proper time for 
the transplanting of evergreens, which means that there is more 
than one season in which they may be moved. It is ordinarily 
unsafe to transplant them in the fall in northern climates or 
bleak situations, since the evaporation from the foliage during 
the winter is likely to injure the plant. The best results are 
usually secured in spring or summer planting. In spring they 
may be moved rather late, just as new growth is beginning. 
Some persons also plant them in August or early September, 
as the roots secure a hold on the soil before winter. In the 



332 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Southern states transplanting may be done at most times of the 
year, but late fall and early spring are usually advised. 

In transplanting conifers, it is very important that the roots 
be not exposed to the sun. They should be moistened and 
covered with burlaps or other material. The holes should be 
ready to receive them. If the trees are large, or if it has been 
necessary to trim in the roots, the top should be cut when the 
tree is set. 

Large evergreens (those 10 ft. and more high) are usually 
best transplanted late in winter, at a time when a large ball of 
earth may be moved with them. A trench is dug around the 
tree, it being deepened a little day by day so that the frost can 
work into the earth and hold it in shape. When the ball is 
thoroughly frozen, it is hoisted on to a stone-boat or truck (Fig. 
148) and moved to its new position. 

Perhaps the handsomest of all the native conifers of the north- 
eastern United States is the ordinary hemlock, or hemlock spruce 
(the one so much used for lumber) ; but it is usually difficult to 
move. Transplanted trees from nurseries are usually safest. 
If the trees are taken from the wild, they should be selected 
from open and sunny places. 

For neat and compact effects near porches and along walks, 
the dwarf retinosporas are very useful. 

Most of the pines and spruces are too coarse for planting very 
close to the residence. They are better at some distance removed, 
where they serve as a background to other planting. If they 
are wanted for individual specimens, they should be given plenty 
of room, so that the limbs will not be crowded and the tree be- 
come misshapen. Whatever else is done to the spruces and 
firs, the lower limbs should not be trimmed up, at least not until 
the tree has become so old that the lowest branches die. Some 
species hold their branches much longer than others. The 
oriental spruce (Picea orientalis) is one of the best, in this 
respect. The occasional slight heading-in, that has been men- 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — CONIFERS 333 

tioned, will tend to preserve the lower limbs, and it will not be 
marked enough to alter the form of the tree. 

The number of excellent coniferous evergreens now offered in 
the American trade is large. They are slow of growth and 
require much room if good specimens are to be obtained; but 
if the space can be had and the proper exposure secured, no 
trees add greater dignity and distinction to an estate. Reli- 
able comments on the rarer conifers may be found in the cata- 
logues of the best nurserymen. 

■ 

List of shrubby conifers. 

The following list contains the most usual of the shrub-like 
coniferous evergreens, with asterisks (*) to mark those native to 
this country. The double dagger (J) in this and the succeeding 
list marks those species that are found to be hardy at Ottawa, 
Ontario, and are recommended by the Central Experimental 
Farm of Canada. 

Dwarf arborvitse, Thuja occidentalism 

There are many dwarf and compact varieties of arborvitse, most of which 
are excellent for small places. The most desirable for general purposes, and 
also the largest, is the so-called Siberian. Other very desirable forms are 
those sold as globosa, ericoides, compacta,% Hovey,% Ellwangeriana,% pyra- 
midalis,% Wareana (or Sibirica),% and aurea Douglasii.% 

Japanese arborvitae or retinospora, Chamacyparis of various species. 
Retinosporas J under names as follows: Cupressus ericoides, 2 ft., with fine 
soft delicate, green foliage that assumes a purplish tinge in winter; C. 
pisifera, one of the best, with a pendulous habit and bright green foliage; 
C. pisifera var. filifera, with drooping branches and thread-like pendulous 
branches; C. pisifera var. plumosa, more compact than P. pisifera and 
feathery; var. aurea of the last, "one of the most beautiful golden-leaved 
evergreen shrubs in cultivation." 

Juniper, Juniperus communis* and garden varieties. 

The juniper is a partially trailing plant, of loose habit, suitable for banks 
and rocky places. There are upright and very formal varieties of it, the best 
being those sold as var. Hibernica {fastigiata) ,% "Irish juniper," and var. 
Suecica, "Swedish juniper." 



334 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Northern juniper, J. Sabina, var. prostrata* 

One of the best of the low, diffuse conifers; var. tamariscifolia,% 1—2 ft. 

Chinese and Japanese junipers in many forms, /. Chinensis. 
Dwarf Norway spruce, Picea excelsa, dwarf forms. 

Several very dwarf sorts of the Norway spruce are in cultivation, some of 
which are to be recommended. 

Dwarf pine, Pinus montana, var. pumilio. 
Mugho pine, Pinus montana, var. Mughus.% 

There are other desirable dwarf pines. 

Wild yew, Taxus Canadensis* 

Common in woods; a wide-spreading plant known as "ground hemlock"; 
3-4 ft. 

Arboreous conifers. 

The evergreen conifers that one is likely to plant may be roughly 
classed as pines; spruces and firs; cedars and junipers; arborvitae; 
yews. 

White Pine, Pinus Strobus*% 

The best native species for general planting ; retains its bright green color 
in winter. 

Austrian pine, P. Austriaca.% 

Hardy, coarse, and rugged; suitable only for large areas; foliage very dark. 

Scotch pine, P. sylvestris.% 

Not so coarse as Austrian pine, with a lighter and bluer foliage. 

Red pine, P. resinosa*% 

Valuable in groups and belts; usually called "Norway pine"; rather 
heavy in expression. 

Bull pine, P. ponderosa*\ 

A strong majestic tree, deserving to be better known in large grounds; 
native westward. 

Cembrian pine, Pinus Cembra. 

A very fine slow-growing tree; one of the few standard pines suitable for 
small places. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — CONIFERS 335 

Scrub pine, P. divaricata (P. Banksiana) * 

A small tree, more odd and picturesque than beautiful, but desirable in 
certain places. 

Mugho pine, P. montana var. Mughus.% 

Usually more a bush than a tree (2 to 12 ft.), although it may attain a 
height of 20-30 ft. ; mentioned under Shrubs (p. 334) . 

Norway spruce, Picea excelsa.% 

The most commonly planted spruce; loses much of its peculiar beauty 
when thirty to fifty years of age ; several dwarf and weeping forms. 

White spruce, P. alba*% 

One of the finest of the spruces ; a more compact grower than the last, and 
not so coarse; grows slowly. 

Oriental spruce, P. orientalis. 

Especially valuable from its habit of holding its lowest limbs; grows 
slowly; needs some shelter. 

Colorado blue spruce, P. pungens*% 

In color the finest of the conifers; grows slowly; seedlings vary much in 
blueness. 

Alcock's spruce, P. Alcockiana.% 

Excellent; foliage has silvery under surfaces. 

Hemlock spruce, Tsuga Canadensis* 

The common lumber hemlock, but excellent for hedges and as a lawn 
tree; young trees may need partial protection from sun. 

White fir, Abies concolor*% 

Probably the best of the native firs for the northeastern region; leaves 
broad, glaucous. 

Nordmann's fir, A. Nordmanniana. 

Excellent in every way; leaves shining above and lighter beneath. 

Balsam fir, A. balsamea* 

Loses most of its beauty in fifteen or twenty years. 

Douglas fir, Pseudotsuga Douglasii.*% 

Majestic tree of the northern Pacific slope, hardy in the east when grown 
from seeds from far north or high mountains. 



336 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Red cedar, Juniperus Virginiana* 

A common tree, North and South; several horticultural varieties. 

Arborvitse (white cedar, erroneously), Thuja occidentalism 

Becomes unattractive after ten or fifteen years on poor soils; the horti- 
cultural varieties are excellent; see p. 333, and Hedges, p. 220. 

Japanese yew, Taxus cuspidata. 
Hardy small tree. 

Conifers for the South. 

Evergreen conifers, trees and bushes, for regions south of 
Washington: Abies Fraseri and A. Picea (A. pectinata); Nor- 
way spruce; true cedars, Cedrus Atlantica and Deodar a; cypress, 
Cupressus Goveniana, majestica, sempervirens ; Chamcecyparis 
Lawsoniana; practically all junipers, including the native 
cedar (Juniperus Virginiana) ; practically all arborvitse, includ- 
ing the oriental or biota group ; retinosporas (forms of chamse- 
cyparis and thuja of several kinds); Carolina hemlock, Tsuga 
Caroliniana; English yew, Taxus baccata ; Libocedrus decur- 
rens; cephalotaxus and podocarpus; cryptomeria; Bhotan 
pine, Pinus excelsa; and the native pines of the regions. 

9. Window-Gardens 

Although the making of window-gardens may not be properly 
a part of the planting and ornamenting of the home grounds, yet 
the appearance of the residence has a marked effect on the 
attractiveness or unattractiveness of the premises; and there 
is no better place than this in which to discuss the subject. 
Furthermore, window-gardening is closely associated with 
various forms of temporary plant protection about the resi- 
dence (Fig. 268). 

Window-gardens are of two types: the window-box and 
porch-box type, in which the plants are grown outside the win- 
dow and which is a summer or warm- weather effort ; the inte 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — WINDOW-GARDENS 337 

rior or true window-garden, made for the enjoyment of the family 
in its internal relations, and which is chiefly a winter or cold- 
weather effort. 




268. A protection for chrysanthemums. Very good plants can be grown under 
a temporary shed cover. The roof may be of glass, oiled paper, or even 
of wood. Such a shed cover will afford a very effective and handy protec- 
tion for many plants (p. 366). 

The window-box for outside effect. 

Handsomely finished boxes, ornamental tiling, and bracket 
work of wood and iron suitable for fitting out windows for the 
growing of plants, are on the market; but such, while desirable, 
are by no means necessary. A stout pine box of a length cor- 
responding to the width of the window, about 10 inches wide 
and 6 deep, answers quite as well as a finer box, since it will 
likely be some distance above the street, and its sides, moreover, 
are soon covered by the vines. A zinc tray of a size to fit into 
the wooden box may be ordered of the tinsmith. It will tend 
to keep the soil from drying out so rapidly, but it is not a neces- 
sity. A few small holes in the bottom will provide for drain- 
age ; but with carefulness in watering these are not necessary, 



338 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

since the box by its exposed position will dry out readily during 
summer weather, unless the position is a shaded one. In the 
latter case provision for good drainage is always advisable. 

Since there is more or less cramping of roots, it will be neces- 
sary to make the soil richer than would be required were the 
plants to grow in the garden. The most desirable soil is one 
that does not pack hard like clay, nor contract much when dry, 
but remains porous and springy. Such a soil is found in the 
potting earth used by florists, and it may be obtained from them 
at 50 cents to $1 a barrel. Often the nature of the soil will be 
such as to make it desirable to have at hand a barrel of sharp 
sand for mixing with it, to make it more porous and prevent 
baking. A good filling for a deep box is a layer of clinkers or 
other drainage in the bottom, a layer of pasture sod, a layer of 
old cow manure, and fill with fertile garden earth. 

Some window-gardeners pot the plants and then set them in 
the window-box, filling the spaces between the pots with moist 
moss. Others plant them directly in the earth. The former 
method, as a general rule, is to be preferred in the winter 
window-garden; the latter in the summer. 

The plants most valuable for outside boxes are those of droop- 
ing habit, such as lobelias, tropeolums, othonna, Kenilworth 
ivy, verbena (Fig. 269), sweet alyssum, and petunia. Such 
plants may occupy the front row, while back of them may be 
the erect-growing plants, as geraniums, heliotropes, begonias 
(Plate XX). 

For shady situations the main dependence is on plants of 
graceful form or handsome foliage; while for the sunny window 
the selection may be of blooming plants. Of the plants men- 
tioned below for these two positions, those marked with an 
asterisk (*) are of climbing habit, and may be trained up about 
the sides of the window. 

Just what plants will be most suitable depends on the expo- 
sure. For the shady side of the street, the more delicate kinds of 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — WINDOW-GARDENS 339 




269. Bouquet of verbenas. 



340 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

plants may be used. For full exposure to the sun, it will be 
necessary to choose the more vigorous-growing kinds. In the 
latter position, suitable plants for drooping would be : trope- 
olums,* passifloras,* the single petunias, sweet alyssum, lobelias, 
verbenas, mesembryanthemums. For erect-growing plants : ge- 
raniums, heliotropes, phlox. If the position is a shaded one, the 
drooping plants might be of the following : tradescantia, Kenil- 
worth ivy, senecio* or parlor ivy, sedums, moneywort,* vinca, 
smilax,* lygodium* or climbing fern. Erect-growing plants 
would be dracenas, palms, ferns, coleus, centaurea, spotted calla, 
and others. 

After the plants have filled the earth with roots, it will 
be desirable to give the surface among them a very light 
sprinkling of bone-dust or a thicker coating of rotted manure 
from time to time during the summer; or instead of this, a 
watering with weak liquid manure about once a week. This 
is not necessary, however, until the growth shows that the roots 
have about exhausted the soil. 

In the fall the box may be placed on the inside of the window. 
In this case it will be desirable to thin out the foliage somewhat, 
shorten in some of the vines, and perhaps remove some of the 
plants. It will also be desirable to give a fresh coating of rich 
soil. Increased care will be necessary, also, in watering, since 
the plants will have less light than previously, and, moreover, 
there may be no provision for drainage. 

Porch-boxes may be made in the same general plan. Since 
the plants are likely to be injured in porch-boxes, and since these 
boxes should have some architectural effect, it is well to use 
abundantly of rather heavy greenery, such as swordfern (the 
common form of Nephrolepis exaltata) or the Boston fern, 
Asparagus Sprengeri, wandering jew, the large drooping vinca 
(perhaps the variegated form) , aspidistra. With these or simi- 
lar things constituting the body of the box planting, the flower- 
ing plants may be added to heighten the effect. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — WINDOW-GARDENS 341 

The inside window-garden, or " house plants" 

The winter window-garden may consist simply of a jardi- 
niere, or a few choice pot-plants on a stand at the window, or of 
a considerable collection with more or less elaborate arrange- 
ments for their accommodation in the way of box, brackets, 
shelves, and stands. Expensive arrangements are by no means 
necessary, nor is a large collection. The plants and flowers 
themselves are the main consideration, and a small collection 
well cared for is better than a large one unless it can be easily 
accommodated and kept in good condition. 

The box will be seen near at hand, and so it may be more or 
less ornamental in character. The sides may be covered with 
ornamental tile held in place by molding; or a light lattice- 
work of wood surrounding the box is pretty. But a neatly made 
and strong box of about the dimensions mentioned on page 337, 
with a strip of molding at the top and bottom, answers just 
as well; and if painted green, or some neutral shade, only the 
plants will be seen or thought of. Brackets, jardinieres, and 
stands may be purchased of any of the larger florists. 

The box may consist of merely the wooden receptacle; but 
a preferable arrangement is to make it about eight inches deep 
instead of six, then have the tinsmith make a zinc tray to fit the 
box. This is provided with a false wooden bottom, with cracks 
for drainage, two inches above the real bottom of the tray. 
The plants will then have a vacant space below them into which 
drainage water may pass. Such a box may be thoroughly wat- 
ered as the plants require without danger of the water running 
on the carpet. Of course, a faucet should be provided at some 
suitable point on a level with the bottom of the tray, to permit 
of its being drained every day or so if the water tends to accu- 
mulate. It would not do to allow the water to remain long; 
especially should it never rise to the false bottom, as then the 
soil would be kept too wet. 



342 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

The window for plants should have a southern, southeastern, 
or eastern exposure. Plants need all the light they can get in 
the winter, especially those that are expected to bloom. The 
window should be tight-fitting. Shutters and a curtain will be 
an advantage in cold weather. 

Plants like a certain uniformity in conditions. It is very 
trying on them, and often fatal to success, to have them snug 
and warm one night and pinched in a temperature only a few 
degrees above freezing the next. Some plants will live in spite 
of it, but they cannot be expected to prosper. Those whose 
rooms are heated with steam, hot water, or hot air will have to 
guard against keeping rooms too warm fully as much as keeping 
them too cool. Rooms in brick dwellings that have been warm 
all day, if shut up and made snug in the evening, will often keep 
warm over night without heat except in the coldest weather. 
Rooms in frame dwellings exposed on all sides soon cool down. 

It is difficult to grow plants in rooms lighted by gas. Most 
living-rooms have air too dry for plants. In such cases the bow- 
window may be set off from the room by glass doors ; one then 
has a miniature conservatory. A pan of water on the stove 
or on the register and damp moss among the pots, will help to 
afford plants the necessary humidity. 

The foliage will need cleansing from time to time to free 
it from dust. A bath tub provided with a ready outlet for the 
water is an excellent place for this purpose. The plants may 
be turned on their sides and supported on a small box above 
the bottom of the tub. Then they may be freely syringed with- 
out danger of making the soil too wet. It is usually advisable 
not to wet the flowers, however, especially the white waxen 
kinds, like hyacinths. The foliage of rex begonias should be 
cleansed with a piece of dry or only slightly moist cotton. But 
if the leaves can be quickly dried off by placing them in the 
open air on mild days, or moderately near the stove, the foliage 
may be syringed. 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — WINDOW-GARDENS 343 

Some persons attach the box to the window, or support it 
on brackets attached below the window-sill; but a preferable 
arrangement is to support the box on a low and light stand of 
suitable height provided with rollers. It may then be drawn 
back from the window, turned around from time to time to 
give the plants light on all sides, or turned with the attractive 
side in as may be desired. 

Often the plants are set directly in the soil; but if they 
are kept in pots they may be rearranged, and changed about to 
give those which need it more light. Larger plants that are 
to stand on shelves or brackets may be in porous earthenware 
pots; but the smaller ones that are to fill the window-box 
may be placed in heavy paper pots. The sides of these are 
flexible, and the plants in them therefore may be crowded close 
together with great economy in space. When pots are spaced, 
damp sphagnum or other moss among them will hold them in 
place, keep the soil from drying out too rapidly, and at the same 
time give off moisture, so grateful to the foliage. 

In addition to the stand, or box, a bracket for one or more 
pots on either side of the window, about one-third or half-way 
up, will be desirable. The bracket should turn on a basal hinge 
or pivot, to admit of swinging it forward or backward. These 
bracket plants usually suffer for moisture, and are rather diffi- 
cult to manage. 

Florists now usually grow plants suitable for window-gardens 
and winter flowering, and any intelligent florist, if asked, will 
take pleasure in making out a suitable collection. The plants 
should be ordered early in the fall; the florist will then not be 
so crowded for time and can give the matter better attention. 

Most of the plants suitable for the winter window-garden 
belong to the groups that florists grow in their medium and 
cool houses. The former are given a night temperature of about 
60°, the latter about 50°. In each case the temperature is 10 
to 15° higher for the daytime. Five degrees of variation below 



344 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

these temperatures will be allowable without any injurious 
effects; even more may be borne, but not without more or less 
check to the plants. In bright, sunny weather the day tempera- 
ture may be higher than in cloudy and dark weather. 

Plants for an average night temperature of 60° (trade names). 

Upright floivering plants. — Abutilons, browallias, calceolaria "Lin- 
coln Park," begonias, bouvardias, euphorbias, scarlet sage, richardia 
or calla, heliotropes, fuchsias, Chinese hibiscus, jasmines, single pe- 
tunias, swainsona, billbergia, freesias, geraniums, cupheas. 

Upright foliage plants. — Muehlenbeckia, Cycas revoluta, Dracaena 
fragans and others, palms, cannas, Farfugium grande, achyranthes, 
ferns, araucarias, epiphyllums, pandanus or "screw p'me," Pilea arborea, 
Ficus elastica, Grevillea robusta. 

Climbing plants. — Asparagus tenuissimus, A. plumosus, Cobcea scan- 
dens, smilax, Japanese hop, Madeira vine (Boussingaultia), Senecio 
mikanioides and S. macroglossus (parlor ivies). See also list below. 

Low-growing , trailing, or drooping plants. — These may be used for 
baskets and edgings. Flowering kinds are : Sweet alyssum, lobelia, 
Fuchsia procumbens, mesembryanthemum, Oxalis pendula, 0. flori- 
bunda and others, Russelia juncea, Mahernia odorata or honey-bell. 

Foliage plants of drooping habit. — Vincas, Saxifraga sarmentosa, 
Kenilworth ivy, tradescantia or wandering jew, Festuca glauca* 
othonna, Isolepsis gracilis* English ivy, Selaginella denticulata, and 
others. Some of these plants flower quite freely, but the flowers are 
small and of secondary consideration. Those with an asterisk (*) 
droop but slightly. 

Plants for an average night temperature of 50°. 

Upright flowering plants. — Azaleas, cyclamens, carnations, chrys- 
anthemums, geraniums, Chinese primroses, stevias, marguerite or Paris 
daisy, single petunias, Anthemis coronaria, camellias, ardisia (berries), 
cinerarias, violets, hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, the Easter lily when in 
bloom, and others. 

Upright foliage plants. — Pittosporums, palms, aucuba, euonymus 
(golden and silvery variegated), araucarias, pandanus, dusty millers. 



THE O RNA MEN TAL PLANTS — WIND OW-GA RDENS 345 

Climbing plants. — English ivy, maurandia, senecio or parlor ivy, 
lygodium (climbing fern). 

Drooping or trailing plants. — Flowering kinds are : Sweet alyssum, 
Mahernia odorata, Russelia and ivy geranium. 

Bulbs in the window-garden. 

Bulbs flowering through the winter add to the list of house 
plants a charming variety. The labor, time, and skill required 
is much less than for growing many of the larger plants more 
commonly used for winter decorations (for instructions on 
growing bulbs out-of-doors, see p. 281; also the entries in 
Chapter VIII). 

Hyacinths, narcissus, tulips, and crocus, and others can be 
made to flower in the winter without difficulty. Secure the 
bulbs so as to be able to pot them by the middle or last of Octo- 
ber, or if earlier all the better. The soil should be rich sandy 
loam, if possible; if not, the best that can be got, to which about 
one-fourth the bulk of sand is added and mixed thoroughly. 

If ordinary flower-pots are to be used, place in the bottom a 
few pieces of broken pots, charcoal, or small stones for drainage, 
then fill the pot with dirt so that when the bulbs are set on the 
dirt the top of the bulb is even with the rim of the pot. Fill 
around it with soil, leaving just the tip of the bulb showing 
above the earth. If the soil is heavy, a good plan is to sprinkle 
a small handful of sand under the bulb to carry off the water, 
as is done in the beds outdoors. If one does not have pots, he 
may use boxes. Starch boxes are a good size to use, as they are 
not heavy to handle; and excellent flowers are sometimes se- 
cured from bulbs planted in old tomato-cans. If boxes or cans 
are used, care must be taken to have holes in the bottoms to 
let the water run out. A large hyacinth bulb will do well in a 
5-inch pot. The same size pot will do for three or four narcis- 
suses or eight to twelve crocuses. 

After the bulbs are planted in the pots or other receptacles, 



346 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

they should be placed in a cool place, either in a cold pit or 
cellar, or on the shady side of a building, or, better yet, plunged 
or buried up to the rim of the pot in a shady border. This is 
done to force the roots to grow while the top stands still, as 
only the bulbs with good roots will give good flowers. When 
the weather gets so cold that a crust is frozen on the soil, the 
pots should be covered with a little straw, and as the weather 
gets colder more straw must be used. In six to eight weeks 
after planting the bulbs, they should have made roots enough 
to grow the plant, and they may be taken up and placed in a 
cool room for a week or so, after which, if they have started 
into growth, they may be taken into a warmer room where they 
can have plenty of light. They will grow very rapidly now and 
will want much water, and after the flowers begin to show, the 
pots may stand in a saucer of water all the time. When just 
coming into bloom the plants may have full sunlight part of 
the time to help bring out the color \>f the flowers. 

Hyacinths, tulips, and narcissus all require similar treatment 
When well rooted, which will be in six or eight weeks, they are 
brought out and given a temperature of some 55° to 60° til 
the flowers appear, when they should be kept in a cooler tem- 
perature, say 50°. The single Roman hyacinth is an excellent 
house plant. The flowers are small, but they are graceful and 
are well adapted to cutting. It is early. 

The Easter lily is managed the same way, except to hasten 
its flowers it should be kept at not lower than 60° at night. 
Warmer will be better. Lily bulbs may be covered an inch or 
more deep in the pots. 

Freesias may be potted six or more in a pot of mellow soil, 
and then started into growth at once. At first they may be 
given a night temperature of 50° ; and 55° to 60° when they have 
begun to grow. 

Small bulbs, as snowdrop and crocus, are planted several 
or a dozen in a pot and buried, or treated like hyacinths; but 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS — WINDOW-GARDENS 347 

they are very sensitive to heat, and require to be given the 
light only when they have started to grow, without any forcing. 
Forty to 45° will be as warm as they ever need be kept. 

Watering house plants. 

It is impossible to give rules for the watering of plants. Con- 
ditions that hold with one grower are different from those of 
another. Advice must be general. Give one good watering 
at the time of potting, after which no water should be given 
until the plants really need it. If, on tapping the pot, it gives 
out a clear ring, it is an indication that water is needed. In 
the case of a soft-wooded plant, just before the leaves begin 
to show signs of wilt is the time for watering. When plants 
are taken up from the ground, or have their roots cut back in 
repotting, gardeners rely, after the first copious watering, on 
syringing the tops two or three times each day, until a new 
root-growth has started, watering at the roots only when abso- 
lutely necessary. Plants that have been potted into larger 
pots will grow without the extra attention of syringing, but 
those from the borders that have had their roots mutilated or 
shortened, should be placed in a cool, shady spot and be 
syringed often. One soon becomes familiar with the wants of 
individual plants, and can judge closely as to need of water. 
All soft-wooded plants with a large leaf-surface need more 
water than hard-wooded plants, and a plant in luxuriant growth 
of any kind more than one that has been cut back or become 
defoliated. When plants are grown in living-rooms, moisture 
must be supplied from some source, and if no arrangement has 
been made for securing moist air, the plants should be syringed 
often. 

All plant-growers should learn to withhold water when 
plants are " resting" or not in active growth. Thus camellias, 
azaleas, rex begonias, palms, and many other things are usually 
not in their growing period in fall and midwinter, and they 



348 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

should then have only sufficient water to keep them in con- 
dition. When growth begins, apply water; and increase the 
water as the growth becomes more rapid. 

Hanging baskets. 

To have a good hanging basket, it is necessary that some careful 
provision be made to prevent too rapid drying out of the earth. 
It is customary, therefore, to line the pot or basket with 
moss. Open wire baskets, like a horse muzzle, are often 
lined with moss and used for the growing of plants. Pre- 
pare the earth by mixing some well-decayed leaf mold with rich 
garden loam, thereby making an earth that will retain mois- 
ture. Hang the basket in a light place, but still not in direct 
sunlight; and, if possible, avoid putting it where it will be ex- 
posed to drying wind. In order to water the basket, it is often 
advisable to sink it into a pail or tub of water. 

Various plants are well adapted to hanging baskets. Among 
the drooping or vine-like kinds are the strawberry geranium, 
Kenilworth ivy, maurandia, German ivy, canary-bird flower, 
Asparagus Sprengeri, ivy geranium, trailing fuchsia, wandering 
jew, andothonna. Among the erect-growing plants that pro- 
duce flowers, Lobelia Erinus, sweet alyssum, petunias, oxalis, 
and various geraniums are to be recommended. Among foliage 
plants such things as coleus, dusty miller, begonia, and some 
geraniums are adaptable. 

Aquarium. 

A pleasant adjunct to a window-garden, living room, or con- 
servatory, is a large glass globe or glass box containing water, 
in which plants and animals are living and growing. A solid 
glass tank or globe is better than a box with glass sides, because 
it does not leak, but the box must be used if one wants a large 
aquarium. For most persons it is better to buy the aquarium 
box than to attempt to make it. Five points are important in 



THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS —WINDOW-GARDENS 349 

making and keeping an aquarium: (1) The equilibrium between 
plant and animal life must be secured and maintained; (2) the 
aquarium must be open on top to the air or well ventilated; 
(3) the temperature should be kept between 40° and 50° for 
ordinary animals and plants (do not place in full sun in a hot 
window) ; (4) it is well to choose such animals for the aquarium 
as are adapted to life in still water; (5) the water must be kept 
fresh, either by the proper balance of plant and animal life or 
by changing the water frequently, or by both. 

The aquatic plants of the neighborhood may be kept in the 
aquarium, — such things as myriophyllums, charas, eel-grass, 
duckmeats or lemnas, cabomba or fish grass, arrow-leafs or sagit- 
taria, and the like; also the parrot's feather, to be bought of 
florists (a species of myriophyllum) . Of animals, there are 
fishes (particularly minnows), water insects, tadpoles, clams, 
snails. If the proper balance is maintained between plant and 
animal life, it will not be necessary to change the water so fre- 
quently. 



CHAPTER VIII 

THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS INSTRUCTIONS 

ON PARTICULAR KINDS 

In the preceding chapter advice is given that applies to groups 
or classes of plants, and many lists are inserted to guide the 
grower in his choice or at least to suggest to him the kinds of 
things that may be grown for certain purposes or conditions. 
It now remains to give instructions on the growing of particular 
kinds or species of plants. 

It is impossible to include instructions on any great number 
of plants in a book like this. It is assumed that the user of 
this book already knows how to grow the familiar or easily 
handled plants; if he does not, a book is not likely to help him 
very much. In this chapter all such things as the common 
annuals and perennials and shrubs and trees are omitted. If 
the reader is in doubt about any of these, or desires information 
concerning them, he will have to consult the catalogues of 
responsible seedsmen and nurserymen or cyclopedic works, or 
go to some competent person for advice. 

In this chapter are brought together instructions on the grow- 
ing of such plants commonly found about home grounds and in 
window-gardens as seem to demand somewhat special or par- 
ticular treatment or about which the novice is likely to ask; 
and of course these instructions must be brief. 

It may be repeated here (p. 115) that a person cannot ex- 
pect to grow a plant satisfactorily" until he learns the natu- 
ral time of the plant to grow and to bloom. Many persons 
handle their begonias, cacti, and azaleas as if they should be 

350 






ABUTILON — AGAPANTHUS 351 

active the whole year round. The key to the situation is water: 
at what part of the year to withhold and at what part to apply 
is one of the very first things to learn (pp. 100, 175, 347). 

Abutilons, or flowering maples as they are often called, make good 
house plants and bedding plants. Nearly all house gardeners have at 
least one plant. 

Common abutilons may be grown from seed or from cuttings of 
young wood. If the former, the seed should be sown in February or 
March in a temperature of not less than 60°. The seedlings should be 
potted when about four to six leaves have grown, in a rich sandy soil. 
Frequent pottings should be made to insure a rapid growth, making 
plants large enough to flower by fall. Or the seedlings may be planted, 
out in the border when danger of frost is over, and taken up in the fall 
before frost; these plants will bloom all winter. About one half of 
the newer growth should be cut off when they are taken up, as they are 
very liable to spindle up when grown in the house. When grown from 
cuttings, young wood should be used, which, after being well rooted, 
may be treated in the same way as the seedlings. 

The varieties with variegated leaves have been improved until the 
foliage effects are equal to the flowers of some varieties; and these 
are a great addition to the conservatory or window garden. The staple 
spotted-leaved type is A. Thompsoni. A compact form, now much 
used for bedding and other outdoor work, is Savitzii, which is a horti- 
cultural variety, not a distinct species. The old-fashioned green- 
leaved A . striatum, from which A . Thompsoni has probably sprung, is 
one of the best. A. megapotamicum or vexillarium is a trailing or 
drooping red-and-yellow-flowered species that is excellent for baskets, 
although not now much seen. It propagates readily from seed. 
There is a form with spotted leaves. 

Abutilons are most satisfactory for house plants when they are not 
much more than a year old. They need no special treatment. 

Agapanthus, or African lily (Agapanthus umbellatus and several 
varieties). — A tuberous-rooted, well-known conservatory or window 
plant, blooming in summer. Excellent for porch and yard decora- 
tion. 



352 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

It lends itself to many conditions and proves satisfactory a large 
part of the year, the leaves forming a green arch over the pot, covering 
it entirely in a well-grown specimen. The flowers are borne in a large 
cluster on stems growing 2-3 ft. high, as many as two or three hundred 
bright blue flowers often forming on a single plant. A large, well-grown 
plant throws up a number of flower-stalks through the early season. 

The one essential to free growth is an abundance of water and an 
occasional application of manure water. Propagation is effected by 
division of the offsets, which may be broken from the main plant in 
early spring. After flowering, gradually lessen the quantity of water 
until they are placed in winter quarters, which should be a position 
free from frost and moderately dry. The agapanthus, being a heavy 
feeder, should be grown in strong loam to which is added well-rotted 
manure and a little sand. When dormant, the roots will withstand a 
little frost. 

Alstremeria. — The alstremerias (of several species) belong to the 
amaryllis family, being tuberous-rooted plants, having leafy stems ter- 
minating in a cluster of ten to fifty small lily-shaped flowers of rich 
colors in summer. 

Most of the alstremerias should be given pot culture, as they are 
easily grown and are not hardy in the open in the North. The culture 
is nearly that of the amaryllis, — a good, fibrous loam with a little sand, 
potting the tubers in early spring or late fall. Start the plants slowly, 
giving only enough water to cause root growth; but after growth has 
become established, a quantity of water may be given. After flowering 
they may be treated as are amaryllis or agapanthus. The roots may 
be divided, and the old and weak parts shaken out. The plants grow 
1-3 ft. high. The flowers often have odd colors. 

Amaryllis. — The popular name of a variety of house or conserva- 
tory tender bulbs, but properly applied only to the Belladonna lily. 
Most of them are hippeastrums, but the culture of all is similar. They 
are satisfactory house plants for spring and summer bloom. One 
difficulty with their culture is the habit of the flower-stalk starting into 
growth before the leaves grow. This is caused in most cases by stimu- 
lating root growth before the bulb has had sufficient rest. 






AMABYLLIS — ANEMONE 353 

The bulbs should be dormant four or five months in a dry place with 
a temperature of about 50°. When wanted to be brought into flower, 
the bulbs, if to be repotted, should have all the dirt shaken off and 
potted in soil composed of fibrous loam and leafmold, to which should 
be added a little sand. If the loam is heavy, place the pot in a warm 
situation; a spent hotbed is a good place. Water as needed, and as 
the flowers develop liquid manure may be given. If large clumps are 
well established in 8- or 10-inch pots, they may be top-dressed with 
new soil containing rotted manure, and as growth increases liquid 
manure may be given twice a week until the flowers open. After 
flowering, gradually withhold water until the leaves die, or plunge 
the pots in the open, in a sunny place. The most popular species for 
window-gardens is A. Johnsoni (properly a hippeastrum), with red 
flowers. Figs. 257, 261. 

Bulbs received from dealers should be placed in pots not much 
broader than the bulb, and the neck of the bulb should not be covered. 
Keep rather dry until active growth begins. The ripened bulbs, in fall, 
may be stored as potatoes, and then brought out in spring as rapidly 
as any of them show signs of growth. 

Anemone. — The wind-flowers are hardy perennials, of easy culture, 
one group (the Anemone coronaria, fulgens, and hortcnsis forms) being 
treated as bulbs. These tuberous-rooted plants should be planted 
late in September or early in October, in a well-enriched sheltered 
border, setting the tubers 3 in. deep and 4-6 in. apart. The 
surface of the border should be mulched with leaves or strawy manure 
through the severe winter weather, uncovering the soil in March. The 
flowers will appear in April or May, and in June or July the tubers 
should be taken up and placed in dry sand until the following fall. 
These plants are not as well known as they should be. The range of 
color is very wide. The flowers are often 2 in. across, and are 
lasting. The tubers may be planted in pots, bringing them into the 
conservatory or house at intervals through the winter, where they make 
an excellent showing when in bloom. 

The Japanese anemone is a wholly different plant from the above. 
There are white-flowered and red-flowered varieties. The best known 
is A. Japonica var. alba, or Honorine Jobert. This species blooms 
2a 



354 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

from August to November, and is at that season the finest of border 
plants. The pure white flowers, with lemon-colored stamens, are held 
well up on stalks 2-3 ft. high. The flower-stems are long and ex- 
cellent for cutting. This species may be propagated by division of the 
plants or by seed. The former method should be employed in the 
spring; the latter, as soon as the seeds are ripe in the fall. Sow the 
seed in boxes in a warm, sheltered situation in the border or under 
glass. The seed should be covered lightly with soil containing a quan- 
tity of sand and not allowed to become dry. A well-enriched, sheltered 
position in a border should be given. 

The little wild wind-flowers are easily colonized in a hardy border. 

Aralia, A. Sieboldii (properly Fatsia Japonica and F. papyrifera), as 
it is sometimes called, and the variety variegata, with large, palmlike 
leaves, are grown for their tropical appearance. 

Sow in February, in shallow trays and light soil, in a temperature 
of 65°. Continue the temperature. When two or three leaves have 
formed, transplant into other trays 1 in. apart. Sprinkle them with 
a fine rose or spray; and do not allow them to suffer for w r ater. Later 
transfer them to small pots and repot them as they grow\ Plant out 
in beds after the weather has become w T arm arid settled. Half-hardy 
perennials in the North, becoming 3 ft. or more high ; a shrub in the 
South and in California. Used often in subtropical w'ork. 

Araucaria, or Norfolk Island pine, is now sold in pots by florists as a 
window plant. There are several species. The greenhouse specimens 
are the juvenile state of plants that become large trees in their native 
regions; therefore, it is not to be expected that they will keep shapely 
and within bounds indefinitely. 

The common species (A. excelsa) makes a symmetrical evergreen 
subject. It keeps well in a cool window, or on the veranda in the 
summer. Protect it from direct sunlight, and give plenty of room. 
If the plant begins to fail, return it to the florist for recuperation, or 
procure a new plant. 

Auricula. — A half-hardy perennial of the primrose tribe {Primula 
Auricula), very popular in Europe, but little grown in America on 
account of the hot, dry summers. 






AZALEAS 355 

In this country auriculas are usually propagated by seed, as for 
cineraria; but special varieties are perpetuated by offsets. Seeds 
sown in February or March should give blooming plants for the next 
February or March. Keep the plants cool and moist, and away from 
the direct sun during the summer. Gardeners usually grow them in 
frames. In the fall, they are potted into 3-in. or 4-in. pots, and 
made to bloom either in frames as for violets or in a cool conservatory 
or greenhouse. , In April, after blooming has ceased, repot the plants 
and treat as the previous year. As with most annual-blooming peren- 
nials, best results are to be expected with year-old or two-year-old 
plants. Auriculas grow 6-8 in. high. Colors white and many shades 
of red and blue. 

Azaleas are excellent outdoor and greenhouse shrubs, and are some- 
times seen in windows. They are less grown in this country than in 
Europe, largely because of our hot, dry summers and severe winters. 

There are two common types or classes of azaleas: the hardy or 
Ghent azaleas, and the Indian azaleas. The latter are the familiar 
large-flowered azaleas of conservatories and window-gardens. 

Ghent azaleas thrive in the open along the seacoast as far north 
as southern New England. They require a sandy peaty soil, but are 
treated as other shrubs are. The large flower-buds are liable to injury 
from the warm suns of late winter and early spring, and to avoid this 
injury the plants are often protected by covers or shades of brush. In 
the interior country, little attempt is made to flower azaleas perma- 
nently in the open, although they may be grown if carefully tended 
and well protected. 

Both Ghent and Indian azaleas are excellent pot-plants for bloom 
in late winter and spring. The plants are imported in great numbers 
from Europe in fall, and it is better to buy these plants than to attempt 
to propagate them. Pot them up in large-sized pots, keep them cool 
and backward for a time until they are established, then take them into 
a conservatory temperature in which carnations and roses thrive. 
They should be potted in a soil of half peat or well-decayed mold and 
half rich loam; add a little sand. Pot firmly, and be sure to provide 
sufficient drainage. Keep off red spider by syringing. 

After blooming, the plants may be thinned by pruning out the 



356 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

straggling growths, and repotted. Set them in a frame or in a semi- 
shaded place during summer, and see that they make a good growth. 
The wood should be well ripened in the fall. After cold weather sets 
in, keep the Indian or evergreen kinds half dormant by setting them 
in a cool, dull-lighted cellar or pit, bringing them in when wanted for 
bloom. The Ghent or deciduous kinds may be touched with frost 
without injury; and they may be kept in a cellar until wanted. 

Begonias are familiar tender bedding and house plants. Next to 
the geranium, begonias are probably the most popular for house cul- 
ture of the entire plant list. The ease of culture, great variety of kinds, 
profusion of bloom or richness of foliage, together with their adap- 
tability to shade, make them very desirable. 

Begonias may be divided into three sections: the fibrous-rooted 
class, which contains the winter-flowering, branching kinds; the rex 
forms, or beefsteak geraniums, having large ornamental leaves; the 
tuberous-rooted, those that bloom through the summer, the tuber rest- 
ing in the winter. 

The fibrous-rooted kinds may be propagated by seed or cuttings, the 
latter being the usual method. Cuttings of half-ripened wood root 
easily, making a rapid growth, the plants flowering in a few months. 

The rex type, having no branches, is propagated from the leaves. 
The large mature leaves are used. The leaf may be cut into sections, 
having at the base a union of two ribs. These pieces of leaves may 
be inserted in the sand as any other cutting. Or a whole leaf may be 
used, cutting through the ribs at intervals and laying the leaf flat on 
the propagating bench or other warm, moist place. In a short time 
young plants having roots of their own will form. These may be potted 
when large enough to handle, and will soon make good plants (Fig 125). 

Rex begonias usually grow little during winter, and they should 
therefore be kept fairly dry and no effort made to push them. Be sure 
that the pots are well drained, so that the soil does not become sour. 
New plants — those a year or so old — are usually most satisfactory. 
Keep them away from direct sunlight. An insidious disease of rex 
begonia leaves has recently made its appearance. The best treatment 
yet known is to propagate fresh plants, throwing away the old stock 
and the dirt in which it is grown. 



BEGONIAS 357 

The tuberous-rooted begonias make excellent bedding plants for 
those who learn their simple but imperative requirements. They 
are also good pot subjects for summer. 

The amateur would better not attempt to grow the tuberous bego- 
nias from seed. He should purchase good two-year tubers. These 
should be able to run for two or three years before they are so old or 
so much spent that they give unsatisfactory results. 

In the North, the tubers are started indoors, for bedding, in February 
or early March in a rather warm temperature. They will fill a five-inch 
pot before they are ready to be turned out into the ground. They 
should not be planted out till the weather is thoroughly settled, for 
they will not stand frost or unfavorable climatic conditions. 

The plants should be, given a soil that holds moisture, but is yet 
well drained. They will not do well in water-logged ground. They 
should have partial shade ; near the north side of a building is a good 
place for them. Too much watering makes them soft and they tend 
to break down. Keep the foliage dry, particularly in sunny weather; 
the watering should be done from underneath. 

After blooming, lift the bulbs, dry them off, and keep over winter 
in a cool place. They may be packed in shallow boxes in dry earth 
or sand. 

Florists sometimes divide the tubers just after growth starts in the 
spring, so that a good eye may be got with each plant; but the ama- 
teur would better use the entire tuber, unless he desires to increase 
or multiply some particular plant. 

If the house gardener desires to raise tuberous begonias from seed, 
he must be prepared to exercise much patience. The seeds, like those 
of all begonias, are very small, and should be sown with great care. 
Start the seeds in late winter. Simply sprinkle them on the surface of 
the soil, which should be a mixture of leafmold and sand, with the 
addition of a small quantity of fibrous loam. Watering should be done 
by setting the pot or box in which the seeds are sown in water, allow- 
ing the moisture to ascend through the soil. When the soil has become 
completely saturated, set the box in a shady situation, covering it with 
glass or some other object until the tiny seedlings appear. Never 
allow the soil to become dry. The seedlings should be transplanted, 
as soon as they can be handled, into boxes or pots containing the 



358 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

same mixture of soil, setting each plant down to the seed-leaf. They 
will need three or four transplantings before they reach the blooming 
stage, and at each one after the first, the proportion of fibrous loam 
may be increased until the soil is composed of one-third each of loam, 
sand, and leafmold. The addition of a little well-rotted manure may 
be made at the last transplanting. 

Cactus. — Various kinds of cactus are often seen in small collections 
of house plants, to which they add interest and oddity, being different 
from other plants. 

Most cacti are easy to grow, requiring little care and enduring the 
heat and dryness of a living room much better than most other plants. 
Their requirements are ample drainage and open soil. Cactus growers 
usually make a soil by mixing pulverized plaster or lime refuse with 
garden loam, using about two- thirds of the loam. The very fine parts, 
or dust, of the plaster, are blown out, else the soil is likely to cement. 
They may be rested at any season by simply setting them away in a dry 
place for two or three months, and bringing them into heat and light 
when they are wanted. As new growth advances they should have 
water occasionally, and when in bloom, they should be watered freely. 
Withhold water gradually after blooming until they are to be rested. 

Some of the most common species in cultivation are the phyllo- 
cactus species, often called the night-blooming cereus. These are not 
the true night-blooming cereuses, which have angular or cylindrical 
stems, covered with bristles, while these have flat, leaf-like branches; 
the flowers of these, however, are very much like the cereus, opening 
at evening and closing before morning, and as the phyllocacti may be 
grown with greater ease, blooming on smaller and younger plants, they 
are to be recommended. 

The true night-blooming cereuses are species of the genus Cereus. 
The commonest one is C. nycticalus, but C. grandiflorus, C. triangu- 
laris and others are occasionally seen. These plants all have long 
rod-like stems which are cylindrical or angular. These stems often 
reach a height of 10 to 30 ft., and they need support. They 
should be trained along a pillar or tied to a stake. They are unin- 
teresting leafless things during a large part of the year; but in mid- 
summer, after they are three or more years old, they throw out their 



CACTUS— GALADIUM 359 

great tubular flowers, which open at nightfall and wither and die when 
the light strikes them next morning. They are very easily grown, 
either in pots or planted in the natural soil in the conservatory. The 
only special care they need is good drainage at the roots, so that the 
soil will not become soggy. 

The epiphyllum, or lobster cactus, or crab cactus, is one of the best 
of the family, easy of culture. It bears bright-colored blossoms at 
the end of each joint. When in flower, which will be in the winter 
months, it requires a richer soil than the other cacti. A suitable soil 
is made of two-thirds fibrous loam and one third leaf mold; usually it 
is best to add sand or pulverized brick. In fall and early winter, keep 
rather dry, giving more water as the plant comes into bloom. 

Opuntias, or prickly pears, are often grown as border plants through 
the summer. In fact, all the family may be planted out, and if a num- 
ber of kinds are set in a bed together, they make a striking addition 
to the garden. Be very careful not to bruise the plants. It is better 
to plunge them in the pots than to turn them out of the pots. 

Caladium. — Tuberous-rooted, tender perennial plants used for 
conservatory decoration, and also for subtropical and bold effects in 
the lawn (Plate IV). The plants commonly known under this name 
are really colocasias. 

The roots should be dormant in the winter, being kept in a warm 
cellar or under a greenhouse bench, where they are not liable to frost 
or dampness. The roots are usually covered with earth, but they 
are kept dry. Early in spring the roots are put into boxes or pots and 
are started into growth, so that by the time settled weather comes 
they will be 1 or 2 feet high and ready to. set directly into soil. 

When set out of doors, they should be protected from strong winds, 
and from the full glare of direct sunlight. The soil should be rich and 
deep, and the plants should have an abundance of water. They do 
well about ponds (see Plate X). 

Caladiums are most excellent plants for striking effects, especially 
against a house, high shrubbery, or other background. If they are 
planted by themselves, they should be in clumps rather than scattered 
as single specimens, as the effect is better. See that they get a good 
start before they are planted in the open ground. As soon as killed 



360 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

down by frost, dig them, dry the roots of superfluous moisture, and 
store till wanted in late winter or spring. 

Calceolaria. — The calceolarias are small greenhouse herbs some- 
times used in the window-garden. They are not very satisfactory 
plants for window treatment, however, since they suffer from dry 
atmosphere and from sudden changes of temperature. 

The calceolarias are grown from seeds. If the seeds are sown in 
early summer and the young plants are transplanted as they need, 
flowering specimens may be had for the late fall and early winter. In 
the growing of the young plants, always avoid exposing them to direct 
sunlight; but they should be given a place that has an abundance of 
screened or tempered light. A new crop of plants should be raised 
each year. 

There is a race of shrubby calceolarias, but it is little known in this 
country. One or two species are annuals adaptable to cultivation in 
the open garden, and their little ladyslipper-like flowers are attractive. 
However, they are of secondary importance as annual garden flowers. 

Calla (properly Richardia), Egyptian lily. — The calla is one of 
the most satisfactory of winter house-plants, lending itself to various 
conditions. 

The requirements of the calla are rich soil and an abundance of 
water, with the roots confined in as small a space as possible. If a 
too large pot is used, the growth of foliage will be very rank, at the 
expense of the flowers ; but by using a smaller-sized pot and applying 
liquid manure, the flowers will be produced freely. A 6-inch pot will 
be large enough for all but an exceptionally large bulb or tuber. If 
desired, a number of tubers may be grown together in a larger pot. 
The soil should be very rich but fibrous — at least one third well-rotted 
manure will be none too much, mixed with equal parts of fibrous loam 
and sharp sand. The tubers should be planted firmly and the pots 
set in a cool place to make roots. After the roots have partially filled 
the pot, the plant may be brought into heat and given a sunny position 
and an abundance of water. An occasional sponging or washing of 
the leaves will free them from dust. No other treatment will be re- 
quired until the flowers appear, when liquid manure may be given. 



CALLA — CAMELLIAS — C ANN AS 361 

The plant will thrive all the better at this time if the pot is placed 
in a saucer of water. In fact, the calla will grow well in an 
aquarium. 

The calla may be grown through the entire year, but it will prove 
more satisfactory, both in leaf and flower, if rested through part of the 
summer. This may be done by laying the pots on their sides in a dry 
shady place under shrubbery, or if in the open slightly covered with 
straw or other litter to keep the roots from becoming extremely dry. 
In September or October they may be shaken out, cleaning off all the 
old soil, and repotted, as already mentioned. The offsets may be 
taken off and set in small pots and given a year's growth, resting them 
the second year and having them in flower that winter. 

The spotted calla has variegated foliage and is a good plant for mixed 
collections. This blooms in the spring, which will lengthen the season 
of cafla bloom. The treatment of this is similar to that of the com- 
mon calla. 

Camellias are half-hardy woody plants, blooming in late winter and 
spring. Years ago camellias were very popular, but they have been 
crowded out by the informal flowers of recent times. Their time will 
come again. 

During the blooming season keep them cool — say not over 50° at 
night and a little higher by day. When blooming is done they begin 
to grow; then give them more heat and plenty of water. See that they 
are well ripened by winter with large plump flower-buds. If they 
are neglected or kept too dry during their growing season (in summer) 
they will drop their buds in fall. The soil for camellias should be 
fibrous and fertile, compounded of rotted sod, leafmold, old cow 
manure, and sufficient sand for good drainage. Always screen them 
from direct sunlight. Do not try to force them in early winter, after 
the growth has ceased. Their summer quarters may be in a pro- 
tected place in the open air. 

Camellias are propagated by cuttings in winter, which should give 
blooming plants in two years. 

Cannas are among the most ornamental and important plants used 
in decorative gardening. They make fine herbaceous hedges, groups, 



362 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

masses, and — when desirable — good center plants for beds. They 
are much used for subtropical effects (see Plate V). 

Cannas grow 3 to 10 feet or more high. Formerly they were 
valued chiefly for their foliage, but since the introduction, in 1884, of 
the Crozy Dwarf French type with its showy flowers, cannas are 
grown as much for their bloom as for their foliage effects. The flowers 
of these new kinds are as large as those of gladioli, and are of various 
shades of yellow and red, with banded and spotted forms. These 
flowering kinds grow about 3 feet high. The older forms are taller. 
In both sections there are green-leaved and dark coppery-red-leaved 
varieties^ 

The canna may be grown from seed and had in bloom the first year 
by sowing in February or March, in boxes or pots placed in hotbeds 
or a warm house, first soaking the seeds in warm water for a short time 
or filing a small notch through the coat of each seed (avoiding the 
round germinating point). It requires two years to raise strong plants 
of the old-fashioned tall cannas from seed. Sow in light, sandy soil, 
where the earth may be kept at 70° till after germination. After the 
plants have got well up, transplant them to about 3 or 4 inches apart, 
or place in pots 3 inches wide, in good rich soil. They may now 
be kept at 60°. 

The majority of cannas, however, are grown from pieces of the 
roots (rhizomes), each piece having a bud. The roots may be divided 
at any time in the winter, and if early flowers and foliage are wanted, 
the pieces may be planted in a hotbed or warmhouse in early April, 
started into growth, and planted out where wanted as soon as the 
ground has warmed and all danger of frost is over. A hardening of 
the plants, by leaving the sash off the hotbeds, or setting the plants in 
shallow boxes and placing the boxes in a sheltered position through 
May, not forgetting a liberal supply of water, will fit the plants to take 
kindly to the final planting out. 

Plant out roots or started plants when there is no longer danger of 
frost. For mass effects, the plants may stand twelve to eighteen inches 
apart; for individual bloom twenty to twenty-four inches or more. 
Some gardeners plant them not closer than twenty to twenty-four 
inches for mass beds, if the soil is good and the plants strong. Give 
them a warm sunny place. 



C ANN AS — CARNA TIONS 363 

The old (foliage) sorts may be left out late to ripen up the fleshy 
root-stocks. Cut the tops off immediately after frost. The roots are 
safe in the ground as long as it does not freeze. Dig, and dry or 
"cure" for a few days, then winter them like potatoes in the cellar. 
It is a common mistake to dig canna roots too early. 

The French sorts are commonly thought to keep best if kept grow- 
ing somewhat during the winter; but if managed right, they may be 
carried over like the others. Immediately after frost, cut off the tops 
next the ground. Cover the stumps with a little soil and leave the 
roots in the ground till well ripened. Clean them after digging, and 
cure or dry them for a week or more in the open air and sun, taking them 
indoors at night. Then place them away from frost in a cool, dry 
place. 

Carnations are now among the most popular florists' flowers; but 
it is not generally known that they be easily grown in the outdoor 
garden. They are of two types, the outdoor or garden varieties, and 
the indoor or forcing kinds. Normally, the carnation is a hardy peren- 
nial, but the garden kinds, or marguerites, are usually treated as 
annuals. The forcing kinds are flowered but once, new plants being 
grown each year from cuttings. 

Marguerite carnations bloom the year the seed is sown, and with a 
slight protection will bloom freely the second year. They make at- 
tractive house plants if potted in the fall. The seeds of these carna- 
tions should be sown in boxes in March and the young plants set out 
as early as possible, pinching out the center of the plant to make them 
branch freely. Give the same space as for garden pinks. 

The winter-flowering carnations have become prime favorites with 
all flower lovers, and a collection of winter house-plants seems incom- 
plete without them. 

Carnations grow readily from cuttings made of the suckers that 
form around the base of the stem, the side shoots of the flowering 
stem, or the main shoots before they show flower-buds. The cuttings 
from the base make the best plants in most cases. These cuttings 
may be taken from a plant at any time through the fall or winter, rooted 
in sand and potted up, to be held in pots until the planting out time 
in the spring, usually in April, or any time when the ground is ready to 



364 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

handle. Care should be taken to pinch out the tops of the young 
plants while growing in the pot, and later while in the ground, causing 
them to grow stocky and send out new growths along the stem. The 
young plants should be grown cool, a temperature of 45° suiting them 
well. Attention should be given to spraying the cuttings each day 
while in the house to keep down the red spider, which is very partial 
to the carnation. 

In the summer, the plants are grown in the field, and not in pots, 
being transplanted from the cutting-box. The soil in which they are 
to be planted should be moderately rich and loose. Clean cultivation 
should be given throughout the summer. Frequently pinch out the 
tops. 

The plants are taken up in September and potted firmly, and well 
watered; then set in a cool, partially shaded situation until root growth 
has started, and watering the plant as it shows need of water. 

The usual living-room conditions as to moisture and heat are not 
such as the carnation demands, and care must be taken to overcome 
the dryness by spraying the foliage and setting the plant in a position 
not exposed to the direct heat of a stove or the sun. In commercial 
houses, it is not often necessary to spray established plants. Pick off 
most or all of the side buds, in order to add to the size of the leading 
flowers. After all is said, it is probably advisable in most cases to 
purchase the plants when in bloom from a florist, and after blooming 
either throw them away or store them for planting out in the spring, 
when they will bloom throughout the summer. 

If conditions are right, the rust should not be very troublesome, if 
the start was made with clean stock. Keep all rusted leaves picked off. 

Century plants or agaves are popular plants for the window-garden 
or conservatory, requiring little care and growing slowly, thus needing 
repotting only at long intervals. When the plants have outgrown 
their usefulness as house-plants, they are still valuable as porch deco- 
rations, for plunging in rock-work, or about rustic nooks. The striped- 
leaved variety is the most desirable, but the normal type, with its blue- 
gray leaves, is highly ornamental. 

There are a number of dwarf species of agave that are not so com- 
mon, although they may be grown with ease. Such plants add novelty 



CENTURY PLANTS — CHRYSANTHEMUMS 365 

to a collection, and may be used through the summer as noted above 
or plunged with cactus in a bed of tropical plants. All succeed well in 
loam and sand in equal parts, with a little leafmold in the case of the 
small varieties. 

The more common species are propagated by suckers from around 
the base of the established plants. A few kinds having no suckers 
must be grown from seed. 

As to watering, they demand no special care. Agaves will not 
stand frost to any extent. 

When the head throws up its great stem and blooms, it may ex- 
haust itself and die; but this may be far short of a century. Some 
species bloom more than once. 

Chrysanthemums are of many kinds, some being annual flower- 
garden plants, some perennial border subjects, and one form is the 
universal florists' plant. In chrysanthemums are now included the 
pyre thrums. 

The annual chrysanthemums must not be confounded with the well- 
known fall-flowering kinds, as they will prove a disappointment if 
one expects large flowers of all colors and shapes. The annuals are 
mostly coarse-growing plants, with an abundance of bloom and a rank 
smell. The flowers are single in most cases, and not very lasting. 
They are useful for massing and also for cut-flowers. They are among 
the easiest of hardy annuals to grow. The stoniest part of the garden 
will usually suit them. Colors white and shades of yellow, the flowers 
daisy-like ; 1-3 ft. 

Amongst perennial kinds, Chrysanthemum frutescens is the well- 
known Paris daisy or marguerite, one of the most popular of the genus. 
This makes a good pot-plant for the window-garden, blooming through- 
out the winter and spring months. It is usually propagated by cut- 
tings, which, if taken in spring, will give large blooming plants for the 
next winter. Gradually transfer to larger pots or boxes, until the 
plants finally stand in 6-inch or 8-inch pots or in small soap boxes. 
There is a fine yellow-flowered variety. The marguerite daisy is much 
grown out-of-doors in California. 

The hardy perennial kinds are small-flowered, late-blooming plants, 
known to many old people as "artemisias." They have been 



366 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

improved of late years, and they are very satisfactory plants of easy 
culture. The plants should be renewed from seed every year or two. 

In variety of form and color, and in size of bloom, the florists' chrys- 
anthemum is one of the most wonderful of plants. - It is a late autumn 
flower, and it needs little artificial heat to bring it to perfection. The 
great blooms of the exhibitions are produced by growing only one 
flower to a plant and by feeding the plant heavily. It is hardly pos- 
sible for the amateur to grow such specimen flowers as the profes- 
sional florist or gardener does; neither is it necessary. A well-grown 
plant with fourteen to twenty flowers is far more satisfactory as a 
window-plant than a long, stiff stem with only one immense flower at 
the apex. The culture is simple, much more so than that of many of 
the plants commonly grown for house decoration. Although the 
season of bloom is short, the satisfaction of having a fall display of 
flowers before the geraniums, begonias, and other house-plants have 
recovered from their removal from out of doors, repays all efforts. 
Very good plants can be grown under a temporary shed cover, as shown 
in Fig. 268. The roof need not necessarily be of glass. Under such 
a cover, also, potted plants, in bloom, may be set for protection when 
the weather becomes too cold. 

Cuttings taken in March or April, planted out in the border in May, 
well tended through the summer and lifted before frost in September, 
will bloom in October or November. The ground in which the plants 
are to bloom should be moderately rich and moist. The plants may be 
tied to stakes. When the buds show, all but the center one of each 
cluster on the leading shoots should be picked off, as also the small 
lateral branches. A thrifty bushy plant thus treated will usually have 
flowers large enough to show the character of the variety, also num- 
bers enough to make a fine display. 

After blooming, the plants are lifted from the border. As to the re- 
ceptacle into which to put them, it need not be a flower-pot. A pail 
or soap-box, with holes bored for drainage, will suit the plant just as 
well, and by covering the box with cloth or paper the difference will 
not be noticed. 

If cuttings are not to be had, young plants may be bought of the 
florists and treated in the manner described. Buy them in midsummer 
or earlier. 



CHR YSA N THEM UMS — CINERA RIA — CLE MA TIS 367 

It is best not to attempt to flower the same plant two seasons. 
After the plant has bloomed, the top may be cut down, and the box 
set in a cellar and kept moderately dry. In February or March, bring 
the plant to the sitting-room window and let the shoots start from the 
root. These shoots are taken for cuttings to grow plants for the fall 
bloom. 

Cineraria is a tender greenhouse subject, but it may be grown as a 
house-plant, although the conditions necessary to the best results are 
difficult to secure outside a glasshouse. 

The conditions for cinerarias are a cool temperature, frequent re- 
potting, and guarding against the attacks of the greenfly. Perhaps the 
last is the most difficult, and with one having no facilities for fumigat- 
ing, it will be almost impossible to prevent the difficulty. A living 
room usually has too dry air for cinerarias. 

The seed, which is very minute, should be sown in August or Sep- 
tember to have plants in bloom in January or February. Sow the 
seed on the surface of fine soil and water very lightly to settle the seeds 
into the soil. A piece of glass or a damp cloth may be spread over the 
pot or box in which the seeds are sown, to remain until the seeds are up. 
Always keep the soil damp, but not wet. When the seedlings are 
large enough to repot, they should be potted singly in 2- or 3-inch 
pots. Before the plants have become pot-bound, they should again 
be repotted into larger pots, until they are in at least 6-inch pots in 
which to bloom. 

In all this time, they should be grown cool and, if not possible to 
fumigate them with tobacco, the pots should stand on tobacco stems, 
which should be moist at all times. The general practice, in order to 
have bushy plants, is to pinch out the center when the flower-buds 
show, causing the lateral branches to start, which they are slow to do 
if the central stem is allowed to grow. Plants bloom but once. 

Clematis. — One of the best of woody climbing vines, the common 
C. Flammula, Virginiana, paniculata and others being used frequently 
to cover division walls or fences, growing year after year without any 
care and producing quantities of flowers. C. paniculata is now planted 
very extensively. The panicles of star-shaped flowers entirely cover 



368 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

the vine and have a pleasant fragrance. It is one of the best of all 
fall-flowering vines, and hardy north; clings well to a chicken- wire 
trellis. 

The large-flowered section, of which Jackmani is perhaps the best 
known, is very popular for pillar or porch climbers. The flowers of 
this section are large and showy, running from pure white, through 
blue, to scarlet. Of this class, a serviceable purple is Jackmani; white, 
Henryi (Fig. 266); blue, Ramona; crimson, Madame E. Andre. 

A deep, mellow, fertile soil, naturally moist, will suit the require- 
ments of clematis. In dry times apply water freely, particularly for 
the large-flowered kinds. Also provide trellis or other support as 
soon as they begin to run. Clematis usually blooms on the wood of 
the season : therefore prune in winter or early spring, in order to secure 
strong new flowering shoots. The large-flowered kinds should be cut 
back to the ground each year; some other kinds may be similarly 
treated unless they are wanted for permanent bowers. 

The clematis root disease is the depredation of a nematode or eel- 
worm. It is seldom troublesome in ground that thoroughly freezes, 
and this may be the reason why it so often fails when planted against 
buildings. 

Coleus. — The commonest "foliage plant " in window-gardens. It 
was used very extensively at one time in ornamental bedding and 
ribbon borders, but owing to its being tender has lost in favor, and its 
place is largely taken by other plants. 

Coleus is grown with the greatest ease from cuttings or slips. Take 
cuttings only from vigorous and healthy plants. It may also be grown 
from seed, although the types have not become fixed, and a large 
number of differently marked plants may be had from the same packet. 
This would not be a drawback in the window-garden, unless a uniform 
effect is desired; in fact, the best results are often secured from seeds. 
Sow the seed in gentle heat in MarGh. 

Grow new plants each year, and throw the old ones away. 

Crocus (see Bulbs, p. 281). — Crocus is one of the best of spring 
bulbs, easily grown and giving good satisfaction either in the border 
or scattered through the lawn. They are also forced for winter (see 






CROCUS — CRO TON 369 

p. 345). They are so cheap and lasting that they may be used in 
quantity. A border of crocuses along the edges of walks, little clumps 
of them in the lawn, or masses in a bed, give the first touch of color 
as the spring opens. 

A sandy soil suits the crocus admirably. Plant in the fall, in the 
open, 3 to 4 inches deep. When they show signs of failing, take up 
the bulbs and reset them. They tend to rise out of the ground, 
because the new bulb or corm forms on the top of the old one. They 
run out on lawns in two or three years. If best results are desired, it 
is well to renew the bed occasionally by buying new bulbs. Crocus 
beds may be filled later in the season with quick-growing annuals. It 
is important that only the best flowering bulbs be secured. 

They may be forced with ease, planted in pots or shallow boxes, put 
away in a cool place and brought into the house at any time through 
the winter. A low temperature will bring them into bloom in per- 
fection in about four weeks from the time they are brought in. They 
can be had in the window-garden in this way, opening in the sunshine. 

Croton. — Under this name many varieties and so-called species of 
Codiseum are grown for conservatory decoration, and latterly for 
foliage bedding in the open. The colors and shapes of the leaves are 
very various and attractive. The crotons make good window-garden 
subjects, although they are very liable to the attack of the mealy bug. 

The plants should be given an abundance of light in order to bring 
out their fine colors; but it is usually advisable to screen them from 
the direct rays of the sun when they are grown under glass. If the 
red spider or the mealy bug attack them, they may be syringed with 
tobacco water. Plants that are propagated indoors in winter may 
be massed in beds out of doors in summer, where they make very 
striking effects. Give them strong deep soil, and be sure that they are 
syringed frequently enough on the underside of the leaves to keep down 
the red spider. If the plants have been gradually subjected to strong 
light before they are taken out of doors, they will stand the full sun- 
light and will develop their rich colors to perfection. In the fall they 
may be taken up, cut back, and used for window-garden or conserva- 
tory subjects. 

Crotons are shrubs or small trees, and they may be transferred into 
2b 



370 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

large pots or tubs and grown into large tree-like specimens. Old 
and scraggly specimens should be thrown away. 

Crotons are propagated readily by cuttings of half -ripened wood any 
time in winter or spring. 

Cyclamen. — A tender greenhouse tuberous plant, sometimes seen 
in the window-garden. The Persian cyclamen is best for the house- 
gardener to grow. 

Cyclamens may be grown from seed sown in April or September in 
soil containing a large proportion of sand and leaf mold. If sown 
in September, they should be wintered in a coolhouse. In May they 
should be potted into larger pots and placed in a shaded frame, and by 
July will have become large enough for their flowering pot, which 
should be either 5-inch or 6-inch. They should be brought into the 
house before danger of frost, and grown cool until through flowering. 
A temperature of 55° suits them while in flower. After flowering, they 
will need a rest for a short time, but should not become very dry, or the 
bulb will be injured. When they start into growth, they should have 
the old soil shaken off and be potted into smaller pots. At no time 
should more than half the tuber be under the soil. 

April-sown plants should be similarly treated. Cyclamens should 
bloom in about fifteen months from seed. The seed germinates very 
slowly. 

Tubers large enough to flower the first year may be purchased from 
the seedsmen at moderate prices ; and unless one has facilities for grow- 
ing the seedlings for a year, purchase of the tubers will give the best 
satisfaction. Secure new tubers, for old ones are not so good. 

The soil best suited to the cyclamen is one containing two parts 
leafmold, one part each of sand and loam. 

Dahlia is an old favorite which, on account of its formal flowers, 
has been in disfavor for a few years, although it has always held a place 
in the rural districts. Now, however, with the advent of the cactus 
and semi-cactus types (or loose-flowered forms), and the improve- 
ment of the singles, it again has taken a front rank among late sum- 
mer flowers, coming in just in advance of the chrysanthemum. 

The single varieties may be grown from seed, but the double sorts 




XVIII. Cornflower or bachelor's button. Centaur ea Cyanus. 



DAHLIA 371 

should be grown from cuttings of young stems or from division of the 
roots. If cuttings are to be made, it will be necessary to start the roots 
early, either in a hotbed or house. When the growths have reached 4 
or 5 inches, they may be cut from the plant and rooted in sand. 
Care should be taken to cut just below a joint, as a cutting made 
between two joints will not form tubers. The most rapid method of 
propagation of named varieties is to grow from cuttings in this way. 

In growing the plants from roots, the best plan is to place the whole 
root in gentle heat, covering slightly. When the young growth has 
started, the roots may be taken up, divided, and planted out 3 to 
4 feet apart. This plan will insure a plant from each piece of root, 
whereas if the roots are divided while dormant, there is danger of not 
having a bud at the end of each piece, in which case no growth will 
start ; the roots are sometimes cut into pieces while dormant, however, 
but one should be sure that a piece of old stem with bud is on each 
piece. 

One objection to the old dahlia was its lateness of bloom. But by 
starting the roots early in a frame, or in boxes that are covered at 
night, the plants may be had in flower several weeks earlier than usual. 
They may be started in April, or at least three weeks in advance of 
planting time. Little water will be required till they start. When 
they begin shooting up, the plants should have the full sun, and air, 
on all mild days. They will then make a slow, sturdy growth. All 
forcing should be avoided. These plants, set out when there is no 
longer danger of frost, and well watered before completely covering the 
roots, will grow right on, and often begin blooming in July. 

Dormant roots may be set out in May. The roots, unless small, 
should be divided before planting, as a single strong root is usually 
better than a whole clump. The roots of all but the Dwarf should 
be set about 3 feet apart, in rows. In poor soils none but the first 
class will need stakes. 

The dahlia flourishes best in a deep, loose, moist soil; very good 
results can be had on sandy soil, provided plant-food and moisture 
are furnished. Clay should be avoided. If the ground is too strong, 
they will probably bloom too late for the northern latitudes. 

If the plants are to be grown without stakes, the center of each plant 
should be pinched out after making two or three joints. By doing this 



372 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

the lateral branches will start near the ground and be stiff enough to 
withstand the winds. In most home gardens the plants are allowed 
to reach their full height, and are tied to stakes if necessary. The 
tall kinds reach a height of 5 to 8 ft. 

Dahlias are very susceptible to frost. After the first frost, lift the 
roots, let them dry in the sun, shake off the dirt, trim off tops and 
broken parts, and store them in a cellar, as for potatoes. They may be 
placed in barrels of sand, if the open cellar is not usable. Cannas may 
be stored in the same place. 

The tree dahlia (D. excelsa, but cultivated as D. arborea ) is grown 
more or less far South and in California. It has not been much im- 
proved. 

Ferns. — The native ferns transplant easily to the garden, and they 
make an attractive addition to the side of a house, or as an admixture 
in a hardy border. The ostrich, cinnamon, and royal ferns are the 
best subjects. Give all outdoor ferns a place that is protected from 
winds, otherwise they will shrivel and perhaps die. Screen them from 
the hot sun, or give them the shady side of the building. See that the 
soil is uniformly moist, and that it does not get too hot. Mulch with 
leafmold in the fall. It is not difficult to colonize many of the native 
ferns in shady and protected places where trees do not sap all the 
strength from the ground. 

Probably the one fern grown most extensively as a house-plant is 
the small-leaved maidenhair fern (or Adiantum gracillimum) . This 
and other species are among the finest of house plants, when sufficient 
moisture can be given. They make fine specimens as well as serving 
the purpose of greenery for cut flowers. Other species often grown for 
house plants are A. cuneatum and A. Capillus- Veneris. All these do 
well in a mixture of fibrous sod, loam, and sand, with ample drainage 
material. They may be divided if an increase is wanted. 

Another fern for house culture is Nephrolepsis exaltata. This is 
no doubt the most easily grown of the list, flourishing in a sitting- 
room. A variety of N. exaltata, called the Boston fern, is a decided 
addition to this group, having a drooping habit, covering the pot 
and making a fine stand or bracket plant ; and there are now several 
other forms of it suitable for the best window-gardens. 



FERNS — FREE SI A — F U CHS I A 373 

Several species of pteris, especially P. serrulata, are valuable house 
ferns, but require a warmer place than those mentioned above. They 
will also thrive better in a shady or ill-lighted corner. 

Perfect drainage and care in watering have more to do with the 
successful growing of ferns than any special mixture of soils. If the 
drainage material in the bottom of the pot or box is sufficient, there is 
little danger of overwatering; but water-logged soil is always to be 
avoided. Do not use clay soils. Ferns need protection from the 
direct sunshine, and also a moist atmosphere. They thrive well in 
a close glass box, or window-garden, if the conditions can be kept 
equable. 

Freesia. — One of the best and most easily handled tender winter- 
flowering bulbs; height 12 or 15 inches. The white form (Freesia 
refracta alba) is the best. 

The white or yellowish bell-shaped flowers of freesia are produced 
on slender stalks just above the foliage, to the number of six to eight 
in a cluster. They are very fragrant, and last for a considerable time 
when picked. The bulbs are small, and look as though they could not 
produce a growth of foliage and flowers, but even the smallest mature 
bulb will prove satisfactory. Several bulbs should be planted to- 
gether in a pot, box, or pan, in October, if wanted for the holidays, or 
later if wanted at Easter. The plants bloom from ten to twelve weeks 
from planting, under ordinary care. 

No special treatment is required; keep the plants cool and moist 
through the growing season. The soil should contain a little sand 
mixed with fibrous loam, and the pot should be well drained. After 
flowering, gradually withhold water and the tops will die down, after 
which the roots may be shaken out and rested until time to plant in 
fall. Care should be taken to keep them perfectly dry. 

The bulbs increase rapidly from offsets. Plants may also be grown 
from seed, which should be sown as soon as ripe, giving blooming plants 
the second or third year. 

Fuchsia. — Well-known window or greenhouse shrub, treated as 
an herbaceous subject; many interesting forms; late winter, spring 
and summer. 



374 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Fuchsia is readily grown from cuttings. Soft green wood should 
be used for cuttings, and it will root in about three weeks, when the 
cuttings should be potted, Take care not to have them pot-bound 
while in growth, but do not overpot when bloom is wanted. Given 
warmth and good soil, they will make fine plants in three months or 
less. In well-protected, partially shady places they may be planted 
out, growing into miniature bushes by fall. 

Plants may be kept on from year to year; and if the branches are 
well cut back after blooming, abundant new bloom will come. But 
it is usually best to make new plants each year from cuttings, since 
young plants commonly bloom most profusely and demand less care. 
Fuchsias are amongst the best of window subjects. 

Geranium. — What are commonly known as geraniums are, strictly 
speaking, pelargoniums. (See Pelargonium.) 

The true geraniums are mostly hardy perennials, and therefore 
should not be confounded with the tender pelargoniums. Geraniums 
are worthy a place in a border. They may be transplanted early in 
the spring, setting them 2 ft. apart. Height 10 to 12 in. The 
common wild cranesbill (Geranium maculatum) improves under cul- 
tivation, and is an attractive plant when it stands in front of taller 
foliage. 

Gladiolus. — Of summer and fall-blooming bulbous plants, gladiolus 
is probably the most widely popular. The colors range from scarlet 
and purple, to white, rose, and pure yellow. The plants are of slender, 
erect habit, growing from 2 to 3 feet high. 

Gladioli dislike a heavy clay soil. A light loam or sandy soil suits 
them best. No fresh manure should be added to the soil the year in 
which they are grown. They should have a new place every year, if 
possible, and always an open sunny situation. 

The corms may be covered 2 inches deep in heavy soils, and 4 to 6 in 
light soils. They may stand 8 to 10 inches apart, or half this distance 
for mass effects. For a succession, they may be planted at short inter- 
vals, the earliest planting being of smaller corms in the early spring as 
soon as the soil is dry enough to work; later the larger are to be 
planted — the last setting being not later than the Fourth of July. 



GLADIOL US — GLOXINIA 375 

This last planting will afford fine late flowers. The plants should be 
supported by inconspicuous stakes. 

The successive plantings may be in the same bed among those set 
earlier, or they may be grouped in unoccupied nooks, or portions of 
the border. The plants may stand as close as 6 inches from each 
other. The earlier planting may be a foot apart to admit of later 
settings between. 

Late in the fall, after frosts and before freezing, the corms are to 
be dug, cleaned, and dried in the sun and air for a few hours and then 
stored away in boxes about 2\ inches deep in a cool, dark, and dry 
place. The tops should be left on, at least till completely shriveled. 

The varieties are perpetuated and multiplied by the little corms 
that appear about the base of the large new corm which is formed each 
year. These small corms may be taken off in the spring and sown 
thickly in drills. Many of them will make flowering plants by the 
second season. They are treated like the large corms, in the fall. 

Gladioli are easily grown from seed also, but this method cannot be 
depended on to perpetuate desirable varieties, which can be repro- 
duced only by the cormels. Some of the best flowers may be cross- 
pollinated, or allowed to form seed in the usual manner ; the seed 
sown thickly in drills, and shaded till the plantlets appear, then care- 
fully cultivated, will afford a crop of small corms in the fall. These 
maybe stored for the winter, like the other young corms, and, like them, 
many will flower the second season, affording a great variety and quite 
likely some new and striking kinds. Those that do not flower should 
be reserved for further trial. They often prove finer than those first 
to flower. 

Early-flowering varieties of gladioli may be forced for late winter or 
spring bloom. 

For bouquets, cut the spike when the lower flowers open ; keep in 
fresh water, cut off the end of the stem frequently, and the other 
flowers will expand. 

Gloxinia. — Choice greenhouse tuberous-rooted, spring and summer- 
blooming perennials, sometimes seen in window-gardens, but really 
not adapted to them, although some skillful house-gardeners grow them 
successfully. 



376 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Gloxinias must have a uniform moist and warm atmosphere and 
protection from the sun. They will not stand abuse or varying con- 
ditions. Propagated often by leaf-cuttings, which should give flower- 
ing plants in one year. From the leaf, inserted half its length in the 
soil (or sometimes only the petiole inserted) a tuber arises. This tuber, 
after resting until midwinter or later, is planted, and flowering plants 
soon arise. 

Gloxinias also grow readily from seeds, which may be germinated 
in a temperature of about 70°. Flowering plants may be had in August 
if seeds are sown in late winter, say in early February. This is the 
usual method. After the bloom is past, the tuber is partially dried 
off and kept dormant till the following season. It will usually show 
signs of activity in February or March, when it may be shaken out of 
the old earth and a little water may then be applied and the amount 
increased till the plant is in bloom. The same tubers may be bloomed 
several times. 

Success in the growing of gloxinias is largely a matter of proper 
watering. Keep the dormant tuber just dry enough to prevent 
shriveling, never trying to force it ahead of its time. Avoid wetting 
the leaves. Protect from direct sunlight. Protect from draughts on 
the plants. 

Grevillea. — The "she oak," very graceful greenhouse plant, suit- 
able also for house culture. The plants grow freely from seed, and until 
they become too large are as decorative as ferns. Grevilleas are really 
trees, and are valuable in greenhouses and rooms only in their young 
state. They withstand much abuse. They are now very popular 
as jardiniere subjects. Seeds sown in spring will give handsome 
plants by the next winter. Discard the plants as soon as they become 
ragged. 

Hollyhocks. — These old garden favorites have been neglected of 
late years, primarily because the hollyhock rust has been so preva- 
lent, destroying the plants or making them unsightly (see pp. 183, 210). 

Their culture is very simple. The seed is usually sown in July or 
August, and the plants set where wanted the following spring. They 
will bloom the same year in which they are transplanted — the year 






HOLL YHOCKS — HYACINTHS 377 

following the seed-sowing. New plants should be set every two years, 
as the old crowns are likely to rot or die after the first flowering, or at 
least to become weak. 

Hyacinths (see Bulbs, p. 281) are popular spring-flowering bulbs. 
Hyacinths are hardy, but they are often used as window or green- 
house plants. They are easy to grow and very satisfactory (Fig. 262). 
For winter flowering, the bulbs should be procured early in the fall, 
potted in October in soil composed of loam, leafmold, and sand. If 
ordinary flower-pots are used, put in the bottom a few pieces of broken 
pots, charcoal, or small stones for drainage; then fill the pot with dirt, 
so that when the bulb is planted, the top will be on a level with the 
rim of the pot. Fill in around the bulb with soil, leaving just the tip 
showing. These pots of bulbs should be placed in a cold pit, cellar or 
on the shady side of a building. In all cases, plunge the pot in some 
cool material (as cinders). Before the weather becomes cold enough 
to freeze a crust on the ground, the pots should have a protection of 
straw or leaves to keep the bulbs from severe freezing. In about six 
to eight weeks the bulbs should have made roots enough to grow the 
plant, and the pots may be placed in a cool room for a short time. 
When the plants have started into growth, they may be placed in a 
warmer situation. Watering should be carefully attended to from 
this time, and when the plant is in bloom, the pot may be set in a 
saucer or other shallow dish containing water. After flowering, the 
bulbs may be ripened by gradually withholding water until the leaves 
die. They may then be planted out in the border, where they will 
bloom each spring for a number of years, but will never prove satisfac- 
tory for forcing again. 

The open-ground culture of hyacinths is the same as for tulips 
and other Holland bulbs. 

The hyacinth is the most popular of the Dutch bulbs for growing 
in vases of water. The narcissus may be grown in water, and do just 
as well, but it is not as attractive in glasses as the hyacinth. Glasses 
for hyacinths may be had of florists who deal in supplies, and in various 
shapes and colors. The usual form is tall and narrow, with a cup-like 
mouth to receive the bulb. They are filled with water, so that it will just 
reach the base of the bulb when placed in position in the cup or shoulder 



378 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

above. The vessels of dark-colored glass are preferable to those of 
clear glass, as roots prefer darkness. When the glasses have been filled, 
they are set away in a cool, dark place, where roots will form, as in 
potted bulbs. Results are usually secured earlier in water than in soil. 
To keep the water sweet, a few lumps of charcoal may be put in the 
glass. As the water evaporates, add fresh; add enough so that it runs 
over, and thereby renews that in the glass. Do not disturb the roots 
by taking out the bulb. 

Iris includes many handsome perennials, of which the blue flag is 
familiar to every old-fashioned garden. They are favorites everywhere, 
for their brilliant spring and summer bloom; and they are easy to grow. 

Most irises thrive best in a rather moist soil, and some of them may 
be colonized in the water in margins of ponds. 

Gardeners usually divide them into two sections — the tuberous- 
rooted or rhizomatous, and the bulbous. A third division — the 
fibrous-rooted — is sometimes made. 

The common and most serviceable species belong to the tuberous- 
rooted section. Here is the beautiful and varied Japanese iris, Iris 
laevigata (or /. Kcempferi), which is among the most deserving of all 
hardy perennials. Most of these irises need no special care. They are 
propagated by division of the rootstocks. Plant the pieces one foot 
apart if a mass effect is desired. When the plants begin to fail, dig 
them up, divide the roots, discard the old parts, and grow a new stock, 
as before. The Japanese iris needs much water and a very rich soil. 
Readily grown from seeds, giving bloom the second year. /. Susiana, 
of this section, is one of the oddest of irises, but it is not quite hardy 
in the North. 

Of the bulbous section, most species are not hardy far North. 
The bulbs should be taken up and replanted every two or three years. 
The Persian and Spanish irises belong here. The bulbs give rise to 
but a single stem. 

Lily. — Under this name are included bulbous plants of many kinds, 
not all of them being true lilies. It has been said of this family of 
plants that it has no "poor relations," each of them being perfect in 
itself. Many of the choicest kinds are comparatively unknown, al- 






LILY 379 

though easy to cultivate. In fact, all of the lilies may be grown with 
comparative ease in regions where the given species are hardy. 

A light, fertile, well-drained soil, mellow to the depth of at least one 
foot, a handful of sand Under each bulb if the soil is inclined to be stiff, 
and planting so that the crown of the bulb will be at least 4 inches 
below the surface, are the general requirements. One exception to 
the depth of planting is Lilium auratum, or golden-banded lily. This 
should be planted deeper — from 8 to 12 inches below the sur- 
face — as the new bulbs form over the old one and soon bring the 
bulbs to the surface if they are not planted deep. Deep working of 
the ground is always desirable; 18 inches, or even 2 feet, will be 
none too deep. L. candidum and L. testaceum should be planted in 
August or September, if possible; but usually lilies are planted in 
October and November. 

For all lilies it is safer to provide good winter protection in the 
form of a mulch of leaves or manure, and extending beyond the bor- 
ders of the planting. This should be 5 inches to a foot deep, accord- 
ing to the latitude or locality. 

While most lilies profit by partial shade (except L. candidum), they 
should never be planted near or under trees. The shade or protection 
of tall-growing herbaceous plants is sufficient. In fact, the best re- 
sults, both as to growth and effect, may be secured by planting amongst 
low shrubbery or border plants. 

Most kinds are the better for remaining undisturbed for a number 
of years; but if they are to be taken up and divided, or moved to other 
quarters, they should not be allowed to become dry. The small bulbs, 
or offsets, may be planted in the border, and if protected, will grow to 
flowering size in two or three years. In taking up bulbs for division 
it is best to do so soon after the tops die after blooming. At least this 
should be done early in the fall, not later than October, giving the plants 
a chance to become established before freezing weather. 

As pot-plants some kinds of lilies are very satisfactory, especially 
those that may be forced into bloom through the winter. The best 
kinds for this purpose are, L. Harrisii (Easter lily), L. longiflorum, and 
L. candidum. Others may be forced with success, but these are the 
ones most generally used. The winter culture for forcing is practi- 
cally the same as for hyacinths in pots. 



380 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Some of the best kinds of lilies are mentioned below : — 
L. candidum (Annunciation lily). White; 3 to 4 feet high; it makes 

an autumn growth, and should, therefore, be planted in August; 

set the bulbs from 4 to 6 inches deep. 
L. speciosum (L. lancifolium) , var. prcecox. White, tinged with pink; 

bears several flowers on a stem about 3 feet high. 
L. speciosum, var. rubrum. Rose color, spotted with red. 
L. Brownii. Flowers white inside, chocolate-colored outside ; the 

stems grow about 3 feet high, bearing from 2 to 4 tubular flowers; 

not difficult to manage with good protection and drainage; the 

bulbs are impatient of being kept long out of the ground; after 

planting, they should not be disturbed as long as they flower well. 
L. maculatum (L. Hansoni). Dark yellow; stems 3-4 feet high, each 

producing 6 to 12 flowers. 
L. testaceum (L. excelsum, L. Isabellinum). Rich buff color, with 

delicate spots ; plants about 3 to 5 feet high, with 3 to a dozen flowers 

on a stem; plant the bulbs in September. 
L. longiflorum. White; large tubular flowers, 2 to 8 on a stem; height, 

about 2\ feet. 
L. BatemannicB (a form of L. elegans). Apricot yellow; 6 to 12 flowers 

on stems 3 to 4 feet high. 
L. auratum (Japanese gold-banded lily). Immense white flowers 

banded with yellow and dotted with red or purple, from 3 to 12 on 

a stem ; height, 3 to 4 feet ; the bulbs need thorough protection, 

good drainage, and should be planted 10 or 12 inches deep (Fig. 258). 
L. tigrinum (Tiger lily). An old favorite, with many drooping bright 

red spotted flowers ; var. splendens is specially good ; 3 to 5 ft. 
L. tenuifolium. Rich scarlet flowers nodding in a raceme or panicle ; 

1| to 2 ft. 
L. Maximowiczii (L. Leichtlinii). Flowers clear yellow, with small, 

dark spots, 10 to 12 on a stem; height, 4 feet. 
L. monadelphum. Yellow tubular-shaped flowers in clusters of 6 to 

a dozen or more ; stems 2^ feet tall. 
L. elegans (L. Thunbergianum) , var. Alice Wilson. Lemon-yellow; 

stems 2 feet high, bearing 2 to 8 flowers. 
L. elegans, var. fulgens atrosanguineum. Dark crimson; height, 

1 foot. 



LIL Y-OF-THE- VALLE Y — MO ON-FL WERS 381 

Lily-of-the-valley. — A perfectly hardy little perennial, bearing 
racemes of small, white, bell-shaped flowers in early spring; and also 
much forced by florists. 

For ordinary cultivation, sods or mats of roots may be dug from 
any place in which the plant is colonized. Usually it thrives best in 
partial shade ; and the leaves make an attractive mat on the north side 
of a building, or other shady place, in which grass will not grow. The 
plants will take care of themselves year after year. Better results 
maybe expected from good commercial roots. The "pips" may be 
planted any time from November on, from 3 to 6 inches apart. 

For forcing indoors, imported roots or "pips" are used, as the plants 
are grown for this particular purpose in parts of Europe. These roots 
may be planted in pots, and treated as recommended for winter-flower- 
ing bulbs (p. 345). Florists force them in greater heat, however, often 
giving them a bottom heat of 80° or 90°; but skill and experience are 
required in order to attain uniformly good results in this case. 

Mignonette. — Probably no flower is more generally grown for its 
fragrance than the mignonette. It is a half-hardy annual, thriving 
either in the open or under glass. 

The mignonette needs a cool soil, only moderately rich, shade part 
of the day, and careful attention to cutting the flower-stalks before the 
seeds are ripe. If a sowing be made in late April, followed by a second 
sowing in early July, the season may be extended until severe frosts. 
There are few flowers that will prove as disappointing if the simple 
treatment it needs is omitted. Height, 1 to 2 feet. 

It may be sown in pots late in summer and be had in the house in 
winter. 

Moon-flowers are species of the morning-glory family that open 
their flowers at night. A well-grown plant trained over a porch trellis, 
or allowed to grow at random over a low tree or shrub, is a striking ob- 
ject when in full flower at dusk or through a moonlit evening. In the 
Southern states (where it is much grown) the moon-flower is a peren- 
nial, but even when well protected does not survive the winters in the 
North. 

Cuttings usually give best results in the Northern states, as the 



382 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

seasons are not long enough for seed plants to give good bloom. Cut- 
tings may be made before danger of frost and wintered in the house, 
or the plants may be grown from seed sown in January or February. 
Seeds should be scalded or filed just before sowing. 

The true moon-flower is Ipomcea Bona- N ox, white-flowered; but 
there are other kinds that go under this name. This grows 20 to 30 
feet where the seasons are long enough. 

Narcissus (see Bulbs, p. 281). — Daffodils, jonquils, and the poet's 
narcissus all belong to this group, and many of them are perfectly 
hardy. The polyanthus section, which includes the Paper-white nar 
cissus and sacred lily or Chinese joss-flower, are not hardy except with 
unusually good protection, and are, therefore, most suitable for grow- 
ing indoors. 

It is common to allow the hardy sorts to take care of themselves 
when once planted. This they will do, but much more satisfactory re 
suits will be had by lifting and dividing the clumps every three or foui 
years. A single bulb in a few years forms a large clump. In this con- 
dition the bulbs are not properly nourished, and consequently do not 
flower well. Lifting is preferably done in August or September, when 
the foliage has died down and the bulbs are ripe. 

The narcissi are well suited to partially shaded places, and will 
grow and please wherever good taste may place them. They should 
be freely used, as they are fragrant, bright of color, and easily managed — 
growing among shrubbery, trees, and in places where other flowers 
would refuse to grow. They should be planted in clumps or masses 
in September or October, setting the bulbs 5 to 8 inches apart, ac- 
cording to size, and 3 or 4 inches deep. 

Several species and numberless varieties, both double and single 
are grown. A few good types only can be mentioned (Fig. 260) : — 

Daffodils, or Trumpet narcissus ( Narcissus Pseudo- Narcissus and de- 
rivatives) . 

Single-flowered, Yellow. — Golden Spur, Trumpet Major, Van Sion 
White. — Albicans. 

White and Yellow. — Empress, Horsefieldi. 
Double-flowering, Yellow. — Incomparable fl. pi., Van Sion . 
White. — Alba plena odorata. 



NARCISSUS— OLEANDER 383 

Poet's narcissus (N. poeticus). Flowers white, with yellow cups 

edged crimson. Very fragrant. 
Jonquils (N. Jonquilla). These have very fragrant yellow flowers, 

both double and single, and are old garden favorites. 
Polyanthus narcissus (N. Tazetta). These include paper-white, 

Chinese sacred lily (var. orientalis), and others. 
Primrose Peerless ( N. biflorus) . 

Narcissi may be forced into flower through the winter, as described 
on p. 345. A popular kind for winter bloom is the so-called 
Chinese sacred lily. This grows in water without any soil whatever. 
Secure a bowl or glass dish, about three times the size of the bulb; 
put some pretty stones in the bottom; set in the bulb and build up 
around it with stones so as to hold it stiff when the leaves have grown ; 
tuck two or three small pieces of charcoal among the stones to keep 
the water sweet, then fill up the dish with water and add a little every 
few days, as it evaporates. Set the dish in a warm, light place. In 
about six weeks the fragrant, fine white flowers will fill the room with 
perfume. The Paper-white, closely allied to this, is also forced, and is 
one of the few good bulbs that may be bloomed before Christmas. The 
Van Sions, single and double (a form of daffodil), are also much forced. 

Oleander. — An old favorite shrub for the window-garden, and much 
planted in the open far South. 

While there are many named varieties of the oleander, but two are 
often seen in general cultivation. These are the common red and white 
varieties. Both these, as well as the named varieties, are of easy man- 
agement and well adapted to home culture, growing in pots or tubs 
for several years without special care. Well-grown specimens are very 
effective as porch or lawn plants, or may be used to good advantage in 
mixed beds of tall-growing plants, plunging the pot or tub to the rim 
in the soil. The plants should be cut back after flowering. They 
should be rested in any out-of-the-way place through the winter. 
When brought out in the spring, they should be given sun and air in 
order to make a sturdy growth. 

Propagation is effected by using well-ripened wood for cuttings, 
placed in a close frame ; or the slips may be rooted in a bottle or can 
of water, care being taken to supply water as evaporation takes place. 



,384 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

After being rooted, they may be potted, using soil with a large propor- 
tion of sand. Well-established plants may be repotted in good loam 
and well-rotted manure. They should bloom the second year. 

Oxalis. — A number of hardy species of oxalis are excellent plants 
for rock-work and edging. The greenhouse species are very showy, 
growing without extra care, and blooming freely through the late 
winter and spring months and some of them make excellent window- 
gardening subjects. 

The house species are mostly increased by bulbs, a few by division 
of the root. 0. violacea is one of the commonest of house-plants. Give 
a sunny window, for the flowers open only in sun or very bright light. 
The bulbous (tuberous) kinds are treated much as recommended for 
Bulbs (p. 281), except that the bulbs must not freeze. The tubers are 
started in August or September for winter bloom. It is best to use 
deep pots, or the tubers will throw themselves out. The crown should 
be near the surface. After flowering, the bulbs are dried off and kept 
until new bloom is wanted. 

The " Bermuda buttercup " is 0. lutea and 0. fiava of gardens 
(properly 0. cernua) ; it is a Cape of Good Hope species. Its culture 
is not peculiar. 

Palms. — No more graceful plants for room decoration can be 
found than well-grown specimens of some species of palms. Most 
florists' palms are well adapted for this purpose when small, and as 
the growth is usually very slow, a plant may be used for many years. 

Palm plants thrive best in partial shade. One of the frequent causes 
of failure in the culture of the palm is the overpotting and subsequent 
overwatering. A palm should not be repotted until the mass of roots 
fills the soil and preferably when it is active ; then a pot only a size larger 
should be used. Use ample drainage in the bottom to carry off excess of 
water. Although the plants need a moist soil, water standing at the 
roots proves injurious. Withhold free use of water when the plants 
are partially dormant (page 347). 

A soil composed of well-rotted sod, leafmold, and a little sand will 
meet the requirements. 

Under ordinary living-room conditions, palms are subject to much 



PALMS— PANDANUS - 385 

abuse. Water is allowed to stand in the jardiniere, the plant is kept 
in dark corners and hallways, the air is dry, and scale is allowed to 
infest the leaves. If the plant begins to fail, the housewife is likely to 
repot it or to give it more water, both of which may be wrong. The 
addition of bone-meal or other fertilizer may be better than repotting. 
Keep the plant in good light (but not in direct sunlight) as much as 
possible. Sponge the leaves to remove dust and scale, using soapsuds. 
When a new leaf begins to appear, add bone-meal to make it grow 
vigorously. 

Among the best palms for house culture are arecas, Cocos Weddel- 
liana, latania, kentia, howea, caryota, chamserops, and phcenix. 
Cycas may also be regarded as a palm. 

The date palm may be grown from seed of the common commercial 
date. Seed of the other varieties may be purchased from leading seeds- 
men; but, as the seed germinates only under favorable conditions, and 
the palm is a very slow-growing plant while young, the best plan is to 
purchase the plants from a dealer when wanted. When the plants 
become weak or diseased, take them to a florist for treatment and re- 
cuperation, or purchase new ones. Sometimes the florist places two or 
three small palms in one pot, making a very satisfactory table piece for 
two or three years. 

It is well to set the palms out of doors in the summer, plunging the 
pots nearly or quite to the rim. Turn or lift the pots occasionally so 
that the roots will not strike through into the earth. Choose a par- 
tially shaded place, where the hot sun will not strike them directly and 
where the wind will not injure them. 

Pandanus, or screw pine. — The screw pines are stiff-leaved saw- 
edged plants often grown in window -gardens and used for porch deco- 
ration. 

The Pandanus utilis and P. Veitchii (the latter striped-leaved ox 
white-leaved) are exceedingly ornamental, and are well adapted to 
house culture. The singular habit of growth, bright glossy leaves, 
and the ability to withstand the dust and shade of a dwelling room, 
make them a desirable addition to the house collection. 

They are propagated by the offsets or young plants that grow around 
the base of the trunk; or they may be increased by seed. If by the 
2c 



386 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

former method, the offsets should be cut off and set in sand, at a tem- 
perature of 65° or 70°. The cuttings root slowly and the plants for a 
time make very slow growth. The general cultural treatment is that 
of palms. Give abundance of water in summer. 

Pansy (Fig. 244) is without doubt the most popular hardy spring 
flower in cultivation. The strains of seed are many, each contain- 
ing great possibilities. 

The culture is simple and the results are sure. Seed sown in August 
or September, in boxes or a frame, will make plants large enough to 
reset in November (three or four inches apart) and bloom the follow- 
ing March; or they may be left until March in open seed-beds before 
setting out. Also, if they are sown very thinly in the frames, they 
may remain undisturbed through the winter, blooming very early the 
following spring. The frames should be protected by mats, boards, 
or other covering through the severe cold, and as the sun gains strength, 
care should be taken to keep them from heaving by alternate thawing 
and freezing. Seed sown in boxes in January or February will make 
fine blooming plants by April, taking the place of those blooming earlier. 

The pansy is generally mentioned with plants suitable for partial 
shade, but it also thrives in other localities, especially where the sun 
is not very hot nor the weather very dry. The requisites for satisfac- 
tory pansy culture are fertile, moist, cOol soil, protection from the 
noonday sun, and attention to keeping plants from going to seed. As 
the ground becomes warm, a mulch of leaf mold or other light material 
should, be spread over the bed to retain moisture and exclude heat. 
Spring and fall give the best bloom. In hot summer weather the 
flowers become small. 

Pelargonium. — To this genus belong the plants known as gera- 
niums — the most satisfactory of house-plants, and extensively used 
as bedding plants. No plants will give better returns in leaf and 
flower; and these features, added to the ease of propagation, make them 
general favorites. The common geranium is one of the few plants that 
can be bloomed at any time of the year. 

There are several main groups of pelargoniums, as the common 
"fish geraniums" (from the odor of the foliage), the "show" or Lady 



PELARGONIUM — PEONY 387 

Washington pelargoniums, the ivy geraniums, the thin-leaved bedders 
(as Madame Salleroi), and the "rose" geraniums. 

Cuttings of partially ripened wood of all pelargoniums root very 
easily, grow to blooming size in a short time, and, either planted out 
or grown in a pot, make fine decorations. The common or fish gera- 
niums are much more satisfactory when not more than a year old. 
Take cuttings from the old plants at least once a year. In four or 
five months the young plants begin to bloom. Plants may be taken 
up from the garden and potted, but they rarely give as much satisfac- 
tion as young, vigorous subjects; new plants should be grown every 
year. Repot frequently until they are in 4- to 5-inch pots; then let 
them bloom. 

The show pelargoniums have but one period of bloom, usually in 
April, but they make up in size and coloring. This section is more 
difficult to manage as house-plants than the common geranium, need- 
ing more direct light to keep it stocky, and being troubled by insects. 
Still, all the trouble taken to grow the plants will be well repaid by the 
handsome blossoms. Take cuttings in late spring, after flowering, and 
blooming plants may be had the following year. Good results are 
sometimes secured by keeping these plants two or three years. Cut 
back after each blooming season. 

For house culture the geraniums need a fertile, fibrous loam, with 
the addition of a little sand; good drainage is also an essential. 

Peony. — The herbaceous peony has long had a place in the gar- 
den; it has now been much improved and constitutes one of the very 
best plants known to cultivation. It is perfectly hardy, and free from 
the many diseases and insects that attack so many plants. It continues 
to bloom year after year without renewal, if the soil is well prepared 
and fertile. Fig. 250. 

Inasmuch as the peony is such a strong grower and produces so 
many enormous flowers, it must have a soil that can supply abundant 
plant-food and moisture. The old-fashioned single and semi-double 
comparatively small-flowered kinds will give good results in any ordi- 
nary ground, but the newer highly improved sorts must be given better 
treatment. This is one of the plants that profit by a very rich soil. 
The place should be very deeply plowed or else trenched; and if the 



388 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

land is in sod or is not in good heart, the preparation should begin the 
season before the peonies are planted. A deep moist loam suits them 
best; and as the plants grow and bloom, add bone meal and top-dress 
with manure. When making their growth and when in bloom, they 
should not be allowed to want for water. 

In purchasing peony roots, be careful to secure only well-grown 
and selected stock. Cheap stock, job lots, and odds and ends are 
likely to be very disappointing. 

The plants may be set in fall or spring, the latter being preferable 
in the North. Cover the crown bud 2 or 3 inches, being careful 
not to injure it. If the best blooms are desired, give plenty of room, 
as much as 3 X 4 feet. Peonies grow 2 to 3 feet or even more 
in height. Strong roots of some varieties will give bloom the first 
year; considerable bloom will come the second year; but the full 
bloom on most varieties should not be expected before the third 
year. The flowe.rs may be brightened and their duration prolonged 
by partial shade while in bloom. 

If old plants become weak, or if they drop their buds, dig them up 
and see whether the roots are not more or less dead and decayed; 
divide to fresh parts and replant in well-enriched ground; or purchase 
new plants. 

Peonies are propagated by division of the roots in early fall, one 
good strong eye being left to each piece. 

The peony has merit for its foliage as well as for its bloom, particu- 
larly when the soil is rich and the growth luxuriant. This value of 
the plant is commonly overlooked. The peony deserves its popu- 
larity. 

Phlox. — Garden phloxes are of two kinds, the annual and peren- 
nial. Both are most valuable. 

Excepting the petunia, no plant will give the profusion of bloom 
with as little care as the annual phlox {Phlox Drummo?idii) . For clear 
and brilliant colors, the many varieties of this are certainly unrivaled. 
The dwarf kinds are the more desirable for ribbon-beds, as they are not 
so "leggy." There are whites, pinks, reds, and variegated of the most 
dazzling brilliancy. The dwarfs grow ten inches high, and bloom 
continuously. Set them 8 inches apart in good soil. Seed may be 



PHLOX— PRIMULAS 389 

sown in the open ground in May, or for early plants, in the hotbed 
in March. They may be sown close in the fall if sown very late, so that 
the seeds will not start till spring. 

The perennial phlox of the gardens has been developed from the 
native species, Phlox paniculata and P. maculata. The garden forms 
are often collectively known under the name of P. decussata. In recent 
years the perennial phlox has been much improved, and it now con- 
stitutes one of the best of all flower-garden subjects.. It grows three 
feet tall, and bears a profusion of fine flowers in heavy trusses in mid- 
summer to fall. Figs. 246, 248. 

Perennial phlox is of easy culture. The important point is that 
the plants begin to fail of best bloom about the third year, and they 
are likely to become diseased; and new plantings should be made if 
the strongest flowers are desired. The plants may be taken up in fall, 
the roots divided and cleaned of dead and weak parts, and the pieces 
replanted. Usually, however, the beginner will secure more satis- 
faction in purchasing new cutting-grown plants. This phlox propa- 
gates readily by seed, and if one does not care to perpetuate the par- 
ticular variety, he will find much satisfaction in raising seedlings. 
Some varieties "come true" from seed with fair regularity. Seedlings 
should bloom the second year. 

Fertile garden soil of any kind should raise good perennial phlox. 
See that the plants do not want for water or plant-food at blooming 
time. Liquid manure will often help to keep them going. If they 
are likely to suffer for water when in bloom, wet the ground well every 
evening. 

If the leading shoots are pinched off early in the season, and again 
in midsummer, the bloom will be later, perhaps in September rather 
than in July. 

Primulas, or primroses, are of various kinds, some being border 
plants, but mostly known in this country as greenhouse and window- 
garden subjects. One of them is the auricula (p. 354). The true or 
English cowslip is one of the hardy border plants; also the plants 
commonly known as polyanthus. 

Common hardy primulas (or polyanthus and related forms) grow 
6 to 10 inches high, sending up trusses of yellow and red flowers in 



390 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

early spring. Propagated by division, or by seed sown a year before 
the plants are wanted. Give them rather moist soil. 

The primula of the winter-garden is mostly the P. Sinensis (Chinese 
Primrose), grown very extensively by florists as a Christmas plant. 
With the exception of the full double varieties, it is usually grown 
from seed. There is a popular single form known as P. stellata. The 
seed of Chinese primulas sown in March or April will make large flower- 
ing plants by November or December, if the young plants are shifted 
to larger pots as needed. The seed should be sown on the flat surface 
of the soil, composed of equal parts loam, leafmold, and sand. The 
seed should be pressed down lightly and the soil watered carefully 
to prevent the seed from being washed into the soil. Very fine sphag- 
num moss may be sifted over the seed, or the box set in a moist place, 
where the soil will remain wet until the seeds germinate. When the 
plants are large enough, they should be potted separately or pricked 
out into shallow boxes. Frequent pottings or transplantings should 
be given until September, when they should be in the pots in which 
they are to bloom. The two essentials to successful growth through 
the hot summer are shade and moisture. Height, 6 to 8 inches. 
Bloom in winter and spring. 

At present the "baby Primrose" {Primula Forbesi) is popular. It 
is treated in essentially the same way as the Sinensis. The obconica 
(P. obconica) in several forms is a popular florist's plant, but is not 
much used in window-gardens. The hairs poison the hands of some 
persons. Culture practically as for P. Sinensis. 

All primulas are impatient of a dry atmosphere and fluctuating con- 
ditions. 

Rhododendrons are broad-leaved evergreen shrubs that are admi- 
rably adapted to producing strong planting effects. Some of them are 
hardy in the Northern states. 

Rhododendrons require a fibrous or peaty soil and protection from 
bleak winds and bright suns in summer and winter. A northern or 
somewhat shady exposure, to break the force of the midday sun, is ad- 
visable ; but they should not be planted where large trees will sap the 
fertility and moisture from the ground. They protect each other if 
grown in masses, and also produce better planting effects. 




XIX. Pyracantha in fruit. One of the best ornamental-fruited plants for 
the middle and milder latitudes. 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 391 

They require a deep, fibrous earth, and it is supposed that they 
do not thrive in limestone soils or where wood ashes are freely used. 
While rhododendrons will sometimes succeed without any special prep- 
aration of the ground, it is advisable to take particular pains in this 
regard. It is well to dig a hole 2 or 3 feet deep, and fill it with 
earth compounded of leaf mold, well-rotted sod, and peat. The 
moisture supply should be never failing, for they suffer from drought. 
They should be mulched summer and winter. Plant in spring. 

The hardy garden forms are derivatives of Rhododendron Cataw- 
biense, of the southern Appalachian Mountains. The Pontica and 
other forms are not hardy in the North. 

The "great laurel" of the northern United States (p. 299) is Rho- 
dodendron maximum. This has been extensively colonized in large 
grounds by being removed from the wild in carload lots. When the 
native conditions are imitated, it makes unusually good mass planting. 
Like all rhododendrons it is impatient of drought, hard soil, and full 
exposure to midday sun. This species is valued for its foliage and 
habit more than for its bloom. The wild form of R. Catawbiense is 
also transferred to grounds in large quantities. 

Rose. — No home property is complete without roses. There are 
so many kinds and classes that varieties may be found for almost any 
purpose, from climbing or pillar subjects (p. 318) to highly fragrant 
teas, great hybrid perpetuals, free-blooming bedders, and good foliage 
subjects for the shrubbery. There is no flower in the growing of which 
one so quickly develops the temper and taste of the connoisseur. 

Roses are essentially flower-garden subjects rather than lawn sub- 
jects, since flowers are their chief beauty. Yet the foliage of many 
of the highly developed roses is good and attractive when the plants 
are well grown. To secure the best results with roses, they should 
be placed in a bed by themselves, where they can be tilled and pruned 
and well taken care of, as other flower-garden plants are. The ordinary 
garden roses should rarely be grown in mixed borders of shrubbery. 
It is usually most satisfactory also to make beds of one variety rather 
than to mix them with several varieties. 

If it is desired to have roses in mixed shrubbery borders, then the 
single and informal types should be chosen. The best of all these is 



392 • MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Rosa rugosa. This has not only attractive flowers through the greater 
part of the season, but it also has very interesting foliage and a striking 
habit. The great profusion of bristles and spines gives it an individual 
and strong character. Even without the flowers, it is valuable to add 
character and cast to a foliage mass. The foliage is not attacked by 
insects or fungi, but remains green and glossy throughout the year. 
The fruit is also very large and showy, and persists on bushes well 
through the winter. Some of the wild roses are also very excellent 
for mixing into foliage masses, but, as a rule, their foliage character- 
istics are rather weak, and they are liable to be attacked by thrips. 

There are so many classes of roses that the intending planter is 
likely to be confused unless he knows what they are. Different classes 
require different treatment. Some of them, as the teas and hybrid 
perpetuals (the latter also known as remontants) , bloom from new 
canes; while the rugosa, the Austrian, Harrison's yellow, sweet briers, 
and some others are bushes and do not renew themselves each year 
from the crown or bases of the canes. 

The outdoor roses may be divided into two great groups so far as 
their blooming habit is involved: (1) The continuous or intermittent 
bloomers, as the hybrid perpetuals (blooming chiefly in June), bour- 
bons, tea, rugosa, the teas and hybrid teas being the most continuous 
in bloom; (2) those that bloom once only, in summer, as Austrian, 
Ayrshire, sweet briers, prairie, Cherokee, Banksian, provence, most 
moss roses, damask, multiflora, polyantha, and memorial (Wichura- 
iana). " Perpetual" or recurrent-blooming races have been developed 
in the Ayrshire, moss, polyantha, and others. 

While roses delight in a sunny exposure, nevertheless our dry at- 
mosphere and hot summers are sometimes trying on the flowers, as are 
severe wintry winds on the plants. While, therefore, it is never ad- 
visable to plant roses near large trees, or where they will be over- 
shadowed by buildings or surrounding shrubbery, some shade during 
^he heat of the day will be a benefit. The best position is an eastern 
or northern slope, and where fences or .other objects will break the 
force of strong winds, in those sections where such prevail. 

Roses should be carefully taken up every four or five years, tops and 
roots cut in, and then reset, either in a new place or in the old, after 
enriching the soil with a fresh supply of manure, and deeply spading 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 393 

it over. In Holland, roses are allowed to stand about eight years. 
They are then taken out and their places filled with young plants. 

Soil and planting for roses. 

The best soil for roses is a deep and rich clay loam. If it is more or 
less of a fibrous character from the presence of grass roots, as is the 
case with newly plowed sod ground, so much the better. While such 
is desirable, any ordinary soil will answer, provided it is well manured. 
Cow manure is strong and lasting, and has no heating effect. It will 
cause no damage, even if not rotted. Horse manure, however, should 
be well rotted before mixing it with the soil. The manure may be 
mixed in the soil at the rate of one part in four. If well rotted, how- 
ever, more will not do any damage, as the soil can scarcely be made 
too rich, especially for the everblooming (hybrid tea) roses. Care 
should be taken to mix the manure thoroughly with the earth, and not 
to plant the roses against the manure. 

In planting, care must be taken to avoid exposing the roots to the 
drying of sun and air. If dormant field-grown plants have been pur- 
chased, all broken and bruised roots will need to be cut off smoothly 
and squarely. The tops also will need cutting back. The cut should 
always be made just above a bud, preferably on the outer side of the 
cane. Strong-growing sorts may be cut back one-fourth or one-half, 
according as they have good or bad roots. Weaker-growing kinds, 
as most of the everblooming roses, should be cut back most severely. 
In both cases it is well to remove the weak growth first. Plants set 
out from pots will usually not need cutting back. 

Hardy roses, especially the strong field-grown plants, should be set 
in the early fall if practicable. It is desirable to get them out just as 
soon as they have shed their foliage. If not then, they may be planted 
in the early spring. At that season it is advisable to plant them as 
early as the ground is dry enough, and before the buds have started 
to grow. Dormant pot-plants may also be set out early, but they 
should be perfectly inactive. Setting them out early in this condi- 
tion is preferable to waiting till they are in foliage and full bloom, as 
is so often required by buyers. Growing pot-plants may be planted 
any time in spring after danger of frost is past, or even during the sum- 
mer, if they are watered and shaded for a few days. 



394 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Open-ground plants should be set about as deep as they stood 
previously, excepting budded or grafted plants, which should be set 
so that the union of the stock and graft will be 2 to 4 inches be- 
low the surface of the ground. Plants from pots may also be set an 
inch deeper than they stood in the pots. The soil should be in a fri- 
able condition. Roses should have the soil compact immediately 
about their roots; but we should distinguish between planting roses 
and setting fence posts. The dryer the soil the more firmly it may be 
pressed. 

As a general statement, it may be said that roses on their own roots 
will prove more satisfactory for the general run of planters than budded 
stock. On own-rooted stock, the suckers or shoots from below the 
surface of the soil will be of the same kind, whereas with budded roses 
there is danger of the stock (usually Manetti or dog rose) starting into 
growth and, not being discovered, outgrowing the bud, taking posses- 
sion, and finally killing out the weaker growth. Still, if the plants 
are set deep enough to prevent adventitious buds of the stock from 
starting and the grower is alert, this difficulty is reduced to a minimum. 
There is no question but that finer roses may be grown than from plants 
on their own roots, withstanding the heat of the American summer, if 
the grower takes the proper precautions. 

Pruning roses. 

In pruning roses, determine whether they bloom on canes arising 
each year from the ground or near the ground, or whether they make 
perennial tops ; also form a clear idea whether an abundance of flowers 
is wanted for garden effects, or whether large specimen blooms are 
desired. 

If one is pruning the hybrid perpetual or remontant roses (which are 
now the common garden roses), he cuts back all very vigorous canes 
perhaps one-half their length immediately after the June bloom is 
past in order to produce new, strong shoots for fall flowering, and also 
to make good bottoms for the next year's bloom. Very severe sum- 
mer pruning, however, is likely to produce too much leafy growth. 
In the fall, all canes may be shortened to 3 feet, four or five of the 
best canes being left to each plant. In spring, these canes are again 
cut back to fresh wood, leaving perhaps four or five good buds on 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 395 

each cane ; from these buds the flowering canes of the year are to 
come. If it is desired to secure fewer blooms, but of the best size 
and quality, fewer canes may be left and only two or three new shoots 
be allowed to spring from each one the next spring. 

The rule in trimming all cane-bearing roses is, cut back weak grow- 
ing kinds severely; strong growers moderately. 

Climbing and pillar roses need only the weak branches and the tips 
shortened in. Other hardy kinds will usually need cutting back about 
one-fourth or one-third, according to the vigor of the branches, either 
in the spring or fall. 

The everblooming or hybrid tea roses will need to have all dead 
wood removed at the time of uncovering them in spring. Some prun- 
ing during the summer is also useful in encouraging growth and flow- 
ers. The stronger branches that have flowered may be cut back one- 
half or more. 

The sweet briers, Austrian and rugosas may be kept in bush form; 
but the trunks may be cut out at the ground every two or three years, 
new shoots having been allowed to come up in the meantime. All 
rampant growths should be cut back or taken out. 

Insects and diseases of roses (see pp. 205, 213). 

Most of the summer insects that trouble the rose are best treated 
by a forceful spray of clear water. This should be done early in the 
day and again at evening. Those having city water or good spray 
pumps will find this an easy method of keeping rose pests in check. 
Those without these facilities may use whale-oil soap, fir-tree oil, good 
soap suds, the tobacco preparations, or Persian insect powder. 

The rose-bug or chafer should be hand-picked or knocked off early 
in the morning into a pan of coal oil. The leaf-roller must be crushed. 

The mildews are controlled by the various sulfur sprays. 

Winter protection of roses. 

All garden roses should be well mulched with leaves or coarse manure 
in the fall. Mounding earth about the root also affords excellent protec- 
tion. Bending over the tops and covering with grass or evergreen boughs 
is also to be recommended for such kinds as are suspected to be injured 
by winter; the boughs are preferable because they do not attract mice. 



396 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

North of the Ohio River all the everblooming roses, even if they 
will endure the winter unprotected, will be better for protection. This 
may be slight southward, but should be thorough northward. The 
soil, location, and surroundings often determine the extent of pro- 
tection. If the situation is not so favorable, more protection will be 
necessary. Along the Ohio, a heap of stable manure, or light soil that 
does not become packed and water-logged, placed about the base of 
the plants, will carry over many of the tea roses. The tops are killed 
back; but the plants sprout from the base of the old branches in the 
spring. Bon Silene, Etoile de Lyon, Perle des Jardins, Mme. Camille, 
and others are readily wintered there in this way. 

About Chicago {American Florist, x., No. 358, p. 929, 1895) beds 
have been successfully protected by bending down the tops, fastening 
them, and then placing over and among the plants a layer of dead leaves 
to the depth of a foot. The leaves must be dry, and the soil also, 
before applying them ; this is very essential. After the leaves, a 
layer of lawn-clippings, highest at the middle, and 4 or 5 inches 
thick, placed over the leaves, holds them in place and sheds water. 
This protection carries over the hardiest sorts of everblooming roses, 
including the teas. The tops are killed back when not bent down, 
but this protection saves the roots and crowns; when bent down, the 
tops went through without damage. Even the climbing rose Gloire 
de Dijon was carried through the winter of 1894-1895 at Chicago with- 
out the slightest injury to the branches. 

Strong plants of the everblooming or hybrid tea roses can now be had 
at very reasonable rates, and rather than go to the trouble of protecting 
them in the fall, many persons buy such as they need for bedding pur- 
poses each spring. If the soil of the beds is well enriched, the plants make 
a rapid and luxuriant growth, blooming freely throughout the summer. 

If one desires to go to the trouble, he may protect these and also the 
tea roses even in the northern states by mounding earth about the 
plants and then building a little shed or house about them (or inverting a 
large box over them) and packing about the plants with leaves or straw. 
Some persons make boxes that can be knocked down in the spring and 
stored. The roof should shed water. This method is better than tying 
the plants up in straw and burlaps. Some of the hybrid teas do not 
need so much protsction as this, even in central New York. 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 397 

Varieties of roses. 

The selection of kinds should be mada in reference to the locality 
and purpose for which the roses are wanted. For bedding roses, those 
that are of free-blooming habit, even though the individual flowers 
are not large, are the ones that should be chosen. For permanent 
beds, the so-called hybrid perpetual or remontant roses, blooming prin- 
cipally in June, will be found to be hardy at the North. But if one 
can give them proper protection during the winter, then the Bengal, 
tea, bourbon, and hybrid teas or everblooming roses, may be selected. 

In sections where the temperature does not fall below 20° above 
zero, any of the monthly roses will live without protection. At 
the South the remontants and other deciduous roses do not do as well 
as farther North. The tender climbers — Noisettes, climbing teas, 
bengals, and others — are excellent for pillars, arbors, and verandas 
at the South, but are fit only for the conservatory in those parts of 
the country where there is severe freezing. For the open air at the 
North we have to depend for climbing roses mainly on the prairie 
climbers, and the ramblers (polyanthas), with their recent pink and 
white varieties. The trailing Rosa Wichuraiana is also a useful addi- 
tion as an excellent hardy rose for banks. 

For the northern states a choice small list is as follows: hybrid 
perpetuals, Mrs. John Laing, Wilder, Ulrich Bruner, Frau Karl 
Druschki, Paul Neyron; dwarf polyanthas, Clothilde Soupert, Madame 
Norbert Levavasseur (Baby Rambler), Mile. Cecile Bruner; hybrid teas, 
Grus an Teplitz, La France, Caroline Testout, Kaiserin Victoria, Kil- 
larney; teas, Pink Maman Cochet, White Maman Cochet. 

The following classified lists embrace some of the varieties of recog- 
nized merit for various purposes. There are many others, but it is 
desirable to limit the list to a few good kinds. The intending planter 
should consult recent catalogues. 

Free-blooming monthly roses for bedding. — These are recommended 
not for the individual beauty of the flower — although some are very 
fine — but because of their suitability for the purpose indicated. If 
to be carried over winter in the open ground, they need to be protected 
north of Washington. In beds, pegging down the branches will be 
found desirable. Those starred (*) have proved hardy in southern 
Indiana without protection, although they are more satisfactory with 



398 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



it. (The name of the class to which the variety belongs is indicated 
by the initial letter or letters of the class name : C, China; T., Tea; H. 
T., Hybrid Tea; B., Bourbon; Pol., Polyantha; N., Noisette; H. P. 
Hybrid Perpetual; Pr., Prairie Climber) : — 



Red — 

Sanguinea, C. 
Agrippina, C. 
Marion Dingee, T. 
*Meteor, H. T. 

Blush — 
*Cels, C. 

Mme. Joseph Schwartz, T. 
^Souvenir de la Malmaison, B. 
Mignonette, Pol. 

Yellow — 
♦Isabella Sprunt, T. 
Mosella (Yellow Soupert), Pol. 



Pink — 
*Hermosa, B. 

Souvenir d'un Ami, T. 

Pink Soupert, Pol. 
*Gen. Tartas, T. 

White — 

*Clothilde Soupert, Pol. 
*Sombreuil, B. 

Snowflake, T. 

Pacquerette, Pol. 

Yellow — continued. 
La Pactole, T. 
Marie van Houtte, T. 



Free-blooming monthly roses for summer cutting and beds. — These 
are somewhat less desirable for purely bedding purposes than the pre- 
ceding; but they afford finer flowers and are useful for their fine buds. 
Those starred (*) are hardy in southern Indiana without protection : — 



Red — 
♦Meteor. 

♦Dinsmore, H. P. 
♦Pierre Guillot, H. T. 
Papa Gontier, T. 

White — 

The Bride, T. 

Senator McNaughton, T. 
*Marie Guillot, T. 
*Mme. Bavay, T. 

Kaiserin Augusta Victoria, 

Yellow — 

Perle des Jardins, T. 
Mme. Welch, T. 



H.T. 



Light Pink — 
*La France, H. T. 
Countess de Labarthe, T. 
♦Appoline, B. 

Dark Pink — 

♦American Beauty, H. T. 
♦Duchess of Albany, H. T. 

Mme. C. Testout, H. T. 

Adam, T. 
*Marie Ducher, T. 

Yellow — continued. 
Sunset, T. 
Marie van Houtte, T. 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 399 

Hybrid ^perpetual, or remontant, roses. — These do not flower as 
freely as the groups previously mentioned; but the individual flowers 
are very large and unequaled by any other roses. They flower chiefly 
in June. Those named are among the finest sorts, and some of them 
flower more or less continuously : — 

Red — Pink — 
Alfred Colomb. Mrs. John Laing. 

Earl of Dufferin. Paul Neyron. 

Glorie de Margottin. Queen of Queens. 

Anna de Diesbach. Magna Charta. 

Ulrich Brunner. Baroness Rothschild. 

White — 

Margaret Dickson. Merveille de Lyon. 

Hardy climbing, or pillar roses. — These bloom but once during the 
season. They come after the June roses, however, — a good season — 
and at that time are masses of flowers. They require only slight pruning. 

White — Pink — ■ 

Baltimore Belle, Pr. Queen of the Prairies, Pr. 

Washington, N. Tennessee Belle, Pr. 

Rosa Wichuraiana (trailing). Climbing Jules Margotten, H. P. 

Crimson — Yellow — 

Crimson Rambler, Pol. Yellow Rambler, Pol. 

Tender climbing, or pillar roses. For conservatories, and the 
South as far north as Tennessee. — Those with an asterisk (*) are half- 
hardy north of the Ohio River, or about as hardy as the hybrid teas. 
These need no pruning except a slight shortening-in of the shoots and 
a thinning out of the weak growth. 

Yellow — White — ■ 

Marechal Niel, N. *Aimee Vibert, N. 

Solfaterre, N. Bennett's Seedling (Ayrshire). 

*Gloire de Dijon, T. White Banksia (Banksiana). 
Yellow Banksia (Banksiana). 

Red — 

*Reine Marie Henriette, T. James Sprunt, C. 



400 MANUAL OF GARDENING 



Roses in winter (by C. E. Hunn). 

Although the growing of roses under glass must be left chiefly to 
florists, advice may be useful to those who have conservatories : — 

When growing forcing roses for winter flowers, florists usually pro- 
vide raised beds, in the best-lighted houses they have. The bottom 
of the bed or bench is left with cracks between the boards for drain- 
age ; the cracks are covered with inverted strips of sod, and the bench 
is then covered with 4 or 5 inches of fresh, fibrous loam. This is made 
from rotted sods, with decayed manure incorporated at the rate of about 
one part in four. Sod from any drained pasture-land makes good soil. 
The plants are set on the bed in the spring or early summer, from 12 to 
18 inches apart, and are grown there all summer. 

During the winter they are kept at a temperature of 58° to 60° at 
night, and from 5° to 10° warmer during the day. The heating pipes 
are often run under the benches, not because the rose likes bottom 
heat, but to economize space and to assist in drying out the beds in 
case of their becoming too wet. The greatest care is required in water- 
ing, in guarding the temperature, and in ventilation. Draughts result 
in checks to the growth and in mildewed foliage. 

Dryness of the air, especially from fire heat, is followed by the ap- 
pearance of the minute red spider on the leaves. The aphis, or green 
plant louse, appears under all conditions, and must be kept down by 
the use of some of the tobacco preparations (several of which are on 
the market). 

For the red spider, the chief means of control is syringing with either 
clear or soapy water. If the plants are intelligently ventilated and 
given, at all times, as much fresh air as possible, the red spider is less 
likely to appear. For mildew, which is easily recognized by its white, 
powdery appearance on the foliage, accompanied with more or less 
distortion of the leaves, the remedy is sulfur in some form or other. 
The flowers of sulfur may be dusted thinly over the foliage; enough 
merely slightly to whiten the foliage is sufficient. It may be dusted 
on from the hand in a broadcast way, or applied with a powder-bellows, 
which is a better and less wasteful method. Again, a paint composed 
of sulfur and linseed oil may be applied to a part of one of the steam 
or hot-water heating pipes. The fumes arising from this are not 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 401 

agreeable to breathe, but fatal to mildew. Again, a little sulfur may- 
be sprinkled here and there on the cooler parts of the greenhouse flue. 
Under no circumstances, however, ignite any sulfur in a greenhouse. 
The vapor of burning sulfur is death to plants. 

Propagation of house roses. — The writer has known women who 
could root roses with the greatest ease. They would simply break off 
a branch of the rose, insert it in the flower-bed, cover it with a bell- 
jar, and in a few weeks they would have a strong plant. Again they 
would resort to layering; in which case a branch, notched halfway 
through on the lower side, was bent to the ground and pegged down so 
that the notched part was covered with a few inches of soil. The 
layered spot was watered from time to time. After three or four 
weeks roots were sent forth from the notch and the branch or buds 
began to grow, when it was known that the layer had formed roots. 

Several years ago a friend took a cheese-box, filled it with sharp 
sand to the brim, supported it in a tub of water so that the lower half- 
inch of the box was immersed. The sand was packed down, sprinkled, 
and single-joint rose cuttings, with a bud and a leaf near the top, were 
inserted almost their whole length in the sand. This was in July, a 
hot month, when it is usually difficult to root any kind of cutting; 
moreover, the box stood on a southern slope, facing the hot sun, with- 
out a particle of shade. The only attention given the box was to keep 
the water high enough in the tub to touch the bottom of the cheese- 
box. In about three weeks he took out three or four dozen of as 
nicely rooted cuttings as could have been grown in a greenhouse. 

The "saucer system," in which cuttings are inserted in wet sand 
contained in a saucer an inch or two deep, to be exposed at all times 
to the full sunshine, is of a similar nature. The essentials are, to give 
the cuttings the "full sun" and to keep the sand saturated with 
water. 

Whatever method is used, if cuttings are to be transplanted after 
rooting, it is important to pot them off in small pots as soon as they 
have a cluster of roots one-half inch or an inch long. Leaving them 
too long in the sand weakens the cutting. 

Smilax of the florists is closely allied to asparagus (it is Asparagus 
medeoloides of the botanists). While it cannot be recommended for 
2d 



402 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

house culture, the ease with which it may be grown and the uses to 
which the festoons of leaves may be put entitle it to a place in the 
conservatory or greenhouse. 

Seed sown in pots or boxes in January or February, the plants shifted 
as needed until planted on the bench in August, will grow fine strings 
of green by the holidays. The temperature should be rather high. 
The plants should be set on low benches, giving as much room as pos- 
sible overhead. Green-colored strings should be used for the vines to 
climb on, the vines frequently syringed to keep down the red spider, 
which is very destructive to this plant, and liquid manure given as the 
vines grow. The soil should contain a good proportion of sand and 
be enriched with well-rotted manure. 

After the first strings are cut, a second growth fully as good as the 
first may be had by cleaning up the plants and top-dressing the soil 
with rotted manure. Sometimes the old roots are kept three or four 
years. Slightly shading the house through August will add to the 
color of the leaves. The odor from a vine of smilax thickly covered 
with the small flowers is very agreeable. 

Stocks. — The Ten-weeks and the biennial or Brompton stocks 
(species of Matthiola) are found in nearly all old-fashioned gardens. 
Most gardens are thought to be incomplete without them, and 
the use of the biennial flowering species as house-plants is increas- 
ing. 

The Ten-weeks stock is usually grown from seed sown in hotbeds or 
boxes in March. The seedlings are transplanted several times pre- 
vious to being planted out in early May. At each transplanting the 
soil should be made a little richer. The double flowers will be more 
numerous when the soil is rich. 

The biennial species (or Brompton stocks) should be sown the 
season previous to that in which flowers are wanted, the plants win- 
tered over in a cool house, and grown in the following spring. They 
may be planted out through the summer and lifted into pots in August 
or September for winter flowering. These may be increased by cut- 
tings taken from the side shoots; but the sowing of seed is a surer 
method, and unless an extra fine variety is to be saved, it would be 
the best one to pursue. Height, 10 to 15 inches. 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 403 

Sweet pea. — A hardy, tendril-climbing annual, universally prized 
as an outdoor garden plant; also forced to some extent by florists. 
On any occasion the sweet pea is in place. A bouquet of shaded colors, 
with a few sprays of galium or the perennial gypsophila, makes one of 
the choicest of table decorations. 

Deep, mellow soil, early planting, and heavy mulching suit 
them admirably. It is easy to make soils too rich in nitrogen for 
sweet peas; in such case, they will run to vine at the expense of 
flowers. 

Sow the seeds as soon as the ground is fit to work in the spring, 
making a drill 5 inches deep. Sow thickly and cover with 2 
inches of earth. When the plants have made 2 or 3 inches' 
growth above the earth, fill the drill nearly full, leaving a slight de- 
pression in which water may be caught. After the soil is thoroughly 
soaked with water, a good mulch will hold the moisture. To have the 
ground ready in early spring, it is a good plan to trench the ground in 
the fall. The top of the soil then dries out very quickly in spring and 
is left in good physical condition. 

In the middle and southern states the seed may be planted in fall, 
particularly in lighter soils. 

Frequent syringing with clear water will keep off the red spider that 
often destroys the foliage, and attention to picking the seed pods 
will lengthen the season of bloom. If the finest flowers are wanted, 
do not let the plants stand less than 8 to 12 inches apart. 

A succession of sowings may be made at intervals through May 
and June, and a fair fall crop secured if care is taken to water and 
mulch; but the best results will be secured with the very early plant- 
ing. When the plants are watered, apply enough to soak the soil, 
and do not water frequently. 

Swainsona. — This plant has been called the winter sweet pea, but 
the flowers are not fragrant. It makes a very desirable house plant, 
blooming through the late winter and early spring months. The blos- 
soms, which resemble those of the pea, are borne in long racemes. The 
foliage is finely cut, resembling small locust leaves, and adds to the 
beauty of the plant, the whole effect being exceedingly graceful. 
Swainsona may be grown from seed or cuttings. Cuttings taken in late 



404 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

winter should make blooming plants in summer; these plants may be 
used for winter bloom, but it is better to raise new plants. Some 
gardeners cut back old plants to secure new blooming wood; this is 
desirable if the plants grow more or less permanently in the greenhouse 
border, but for pots new plants should be grown. 

The common swainsona is white-flowered; but there is a good rose- 
colored variety. 

Tuberose (properly tuber-ose, not tube-rose, from its specific name, 
Polianthes tuberosa) . — This plant, with its tall spikes of waxen and 
fragrant white flowers, is well known in the middle latitudes, but usu- 
ally requires more heat and a longer season than are commonly pres- 
ent in the most northern states. 

The tuberose is a strong feeder, and loves warmth, plenty of water 
while growing, and a deep, rich, and well-drained soil. The bulbs may 
be set in the garden or border the last of May or in June, covering them 
about 1 inch deep. Preparatory to planting, the old dead roots at 
the base of the bulb should be cut away and the pips or young bulbs 
about the sides removed. After keeping them till their scars are 
dried over, these pips may be planted 5 or 6 inches apart in drills, 
and with good soil and cultivation they will make blooming bulbs for 
the following year. 

Before planting the large bulbs, it may be well to examine the 
points, to determine whether they are likely to bloom. The tuberose 
blooms but once. If there is a hard, woody piece of old stem in the 
midst of the dry scales at the apex of the bulb, it has bloomed, and is 
of no value except for producing pips. Likewise if, instead of a solid 
core, there is a brownish, dry cavity extending from the tip down into 
the middle of the bulb, the heart has rotted or dried up, and the bulb 
is worthless as far as blooming is concerned. 

Bulbs of blooming size set in the border in June flower toward the 
close of September. They may be made to flower three or four weeks 
sooner by starting them early in some warm place, where they may 
be given a temperature of about 60° to 70°. Prepare the bulbs as 
above, and place them with their tips just above the surface in about 
3- or 4-inch pots, in light sandy soil. Water them thoroughly, after- 
wards sparingly, till the leaves have made considerable growth. 




XX. A simple but effective window-box, containing geraniums, petunias, 
verbenas, heliotrope, and vines. 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 405 

These plants may be turned out into the open ground the last of May 
or in June, and will probably flower in early September. 

In the northern states, if planted in the border they will not start 
into growth until the ground has become thoroughly warm, — usually 
after the middle of June, — making the season before frost too short 
for their perfect growth and flower. If any danger of fall frost is 
feared, they may be lifted into pots or boxes and taken into the house, 
when they will bloom without a check. As with other bulbs, a sandy 
soil will suit. 

Just before frost dig up the bulbs, cut off the tops to within 2 
inches of the apex of the bulb. They may then be placed in shallow 
boxes and left out in the sun and air for a week or more, to cure. 
Each evening, if the nights are cold, they should be removed to some 
room where the temperature will not fall below 40°. When the outer 
scales have become dry, the remaining soil may be shaken off and the 
bulbs stored away in shallow boxes for the winter. They keep best 
in a temperature of 45° to 50°. It should never fall below 40°. 

The Dwarf Pearl, originating in 1870, has long been popular, and is 
still so with many. But others have come to prefer the old, tall 
kind, the flowers of which, even if not so large, are perfect in form and 
seem to open better. 

Tulips are undoubtedly the most prized of all early spring bulbs. 
They are hardy and easy to grow. They also bloom well in winter in 
a sunny climate. The garden bed will last several years if well cared 
for, but most satisfactory bloom is secured if the old bulbs are taken 
up every two or three years and replanted, all the inferior ones being 
cast aside. When the stock begins to run out, buy anew. The old 
stock, if not entirely spent, may be planted in the shrubbery or peren- 
nial borders. 

September is the best time for planting tulips, but as the beds are 
usually occupied at this time, planting is commonly postponed till 
October or November. For garden culture the single early tulips are 
the best. There are excellent early double-flowered varieties. Some 
prefer the double, as their flowers last longer. Late tulips are gorgeous, 
but occupy the beds too long in the spring. While tulips are hardy, 
they are benefited by a winter mulch. 



406 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

In working out design patterns, the utmost care should be used 
to have the lines and curves uniform, which is only to be secured by- 
marking out the design, and careful planting. Formal planting is, 
however, by no means necessary for pleasing effects. Borders, lines, 
and masses of single colors, or groups of mixed colors which harmonize, 
are always in order and pleasing. Clear colors are preferable to neu- 
tral tints. As varieties vary in height and season of blooming, only 
named varieties should be ordered if uniform bedding effects are de- 
sired. See pp. 286 and 345 ; Fig. 255. 

Violet. — While the culture of violets as house-plants rarely proves 
successful, there is no reason why a good supply may not be had else- 
where through the greater part of the winter and the spring months. 

A sheltered location being selected, young plants from runners may 
be set in August or September. Have the ground fertile and well 
drained. These plants will make fine crowns by December, and often 
will bloom before weather sufficiently cold to freeze them. 

To have flowers through the winter, it will be necessary to afford 
some protection. This may best be accomplished by building a frame 
of boards large enough to cover the plants, making the frame in the 
same way as for a hotbed, 4 to 6 inches higher at the back than 
the front. Cover the frame with sash or boards, and as the weather 
becomes severe, mats or straw should be placed over and around the 
frame to protect the plants from freezing. Whenever the weather 
will permit, the covering should be removed and air admitted, but 
no harm will come if the frames are not disturbed for several weeks. 
Much sunlight and a high temperature through the middle of winter 
are to be avoided, for if the plants are stimulated, a shorter period of 
bloom will result. In April the frame may be removed, the plants 
yielding the later part of the crop without protection. 

Violets belong with the "cool" plants of florists. When well hard- 
ened off, considerable frost does not harm them. They should always 
be kept stocky. Start a new lot from runner-plants each year. They 
thrive in a temperature of 55° to 65°. Pages 190, 206. 

Wax-plant. — The wax-plant, or hoya, is one of the commonest of 
window-garden plants, and yet it is one that house-gardeners usually 



THE GROWING OF THE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS 407 

have difficulty in flowering. However, it is one of the easiest plants 
to manage if a person understands its nature. 

It is naturally a summer-blooming plant, and should rest in winter. 
In the winter, keep it just alive in a cool and rather dry place. If 
the temperature does not go above 50° Fahr., so much the better; 
neither should it go much lower. In late winter or spring, the plant 
is brought out to warm temperature, given water, and started into 
growth. The old flower-stems should not be cut off, since new flowers 
come from them as well as from the new wood. When it is brought 
out to be started into growth, it may be repotted, sometimes into a 
size larger pot, but always with more or less fresh earth. The plant 
should increase in value each year. In conservatories, it is sometimes 
planted out in the ground and allowed to run over a wall, in which 
case it will reach a height of many feet. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 

Fruits should be counted a regular part of the home prem- 
ises. There are few residence plots so small that fruits of some 
kind cannot be grown. If there is no opportunity for planting 
the orchard fruits by themselves at regular intervals, there are 
still boundaries to the place, and along these boundaries and 
scattered in the border masses, apples, pears, and other fruits 
may be planted. 

It is not to be expected that fruits will thrive as well in these 
places as in well-tilled orchards, but something can be done, and 
the results are often very satisfactory. Along a back fence or 
walk, one may plant a row or two of currants, gooseberries, or 
blackberries, or he may make a trellis of grapes. If there are 
no trees near the front or back of the border, the fruit plants 
may be placed close together in the row and the greatest de- 
velopment of the tops may be allowed to take place laterally. 
If one has a back yard fifty feet on a side, there will be oppor- 
tunity, in three borders, for six to eight fruit trees, and 
bush-fruits between, without encroaching greatly on the lawn. 
In such cases, the trees are planted just inside the boundary 
line. 

A suggestion for the arrangement of a fruit garden of one acre 
is given in Fig. 270. Such a plan allows of continuous cultiva- 
tion in one direction and facilitates spraying, pruning, and 
harvesting; and the intermediate spaces may be used for the 
growing of annual crops, at least for a few years. 

408 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 



409 



Dwarf fruit-trees. 

For very small areas, and for the growing of the finest dessert 
fruits, dwarf trees may be grown of apples and pears. The 















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270. Plan for a fruit-garden of one acre. From " Principles of Fruit-growing." 

apple is dwarfed when it is worked on certain small and slow- 
growing types of apple trees, as the paradise and doucin stocks. 
The paradise is the better, if one desires a very small and pro- 
ductive tree or bush. The doucin makes only a half-dwarf. 



410 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

The pear is dwarfed when it is grown on the root of quince. 
Dwarf pears may be planted as close as ten feet apart each way, 
although more room should be given them if possible. Paradise 
dwarfs (apples) may be planted eight or ten feet each way, 
and doucin twice that distance. All dwarfs should be kept 
small by vigorous annual heading-in. If the tree is making 
good growth, say one to three feet, a half to two-thirds of the 
growth may be taken off in winter. A dwarf apple or pear 
tree should be kept within a height of twelve or fifteen feet, and 
it should not attain this stature in less than ten or twelve years. 
A dwarf apple tree, in full bearing, should average from two 
pecks to a bushel of first quality apples, and a dwarf pear should 
do somewhat more than this. 

If one grows dwarf fruit trees, he should expect to give them 
extra attention in pruning and cultivating. Only in very ex- 
ceptional instances can the dwarf fruits be expected to equal the 
free-growing standards in commercial results. This is particu- 
larly true of dwarf apples, which are practically home-garden 
plants in this country. This being the case, only the choice 
dessert fruits should be attempted on paradise and doucin roots. 
For home gardens the paradise will probably give more satis- 
faction than the doucin. 

If the tree is taken young, it may be trained along a wall or 
on an espalier trellis; and in such conditions the fruits should 
be of extra quality if the varieties are choice. Plate XXII 
shows the training of a dwarf pear on a wall. This tree has been 
many years in good bearing. In most parts of the country a 
southern wall exposure is likely to force the bloom so early as to 
invite danger from spring frosts. 

Age and size of trees. 

For ordinary planting, it is desirable to choose trees two years 
from bud or graft, except in case of the peach, which should be 
one year old. Many growers find strong one-year trees prefer- 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 411 

able. A good size is about five-eighths of an inch in diameter 
just above the collar, and five feet in height, and if they have 
been well grown, trees of this size will give as good results as 
those seven-eighths of an inch, or more, in diameter, and six 
or seven feet high. Buy first-class trees of reliable dealers. 
It rarely pays to try to save a few cents on a tree, for quality is 
likely to be sacrificed. 

If properly packed, trees can be shipped long distances and 
may do as well as those grown in a home nursery, but it will 
generally be best to secure the trees as near home as possible, 
provided the quality of the trees and the price are satisfactory. 
When a large number is to be purchased, it will be better to 
send the order direct to some reliable nursery, or to select 
the trees in person, than to rely on tree peddlers. 

Pruning (see p. 139). 

Having planted the trees, they should be carefully pruned. 
As a rule, trees with low heads are desirable. Peaches and dwarf 
pears should have the lower branches from 12 to 24 inches above 
ground, and sweet cherries and standard pears generally not 
over 30 inches; plums, sour cherries, and apples may be some- 
what higher, but if properly handled, when started 3 feet 
from the ground, the tops will not be in the way of the culti- 
vation of the orchard. 

For all except the peach in the northern states, a pyramidal 
form will be desirable. To secure this, four or five side branches 
with three or four buds each, should be allowed to grow and the 
center shoot should be cut off at a height of 10 to 12 inches. 
After growth has started, the trees should be occasionally exam- 
ined and all surplus shoots removed, thus throwing the full 
vigor of the plant into those that remain. As a rule three or 
four shoots on each branch may be left to advantage. The 
following spring the shoots should be cut back one-half and 
about half of the branches removed- Care should be taken to 



412 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

avoid crotches, and if any of the branches cross, so that they are 
likely to rub, one or the other should be cut out. This cutting- 
back and trimming-out should be continued for two or three 
years, and in the case of dwarf pear trees regular heading-back 
each year should be continued. Although an occasional head- 
ing-back will be of advantage to the trees, apple, plum, and 
cherry trees that have been properly pruned while young will 
not require so much attention after they come into bearing. 

Heavy pruning of the top tends to the production of wood; 
therefore the severe pruning of orchard trees, following three 
or four years of neglect, sets the trees into heavy wood-bearing, 
and makes them more vigorous. Such treatment generally 
tends away from fruit-bearing. This heavy pruning is usually 
necessary in neglected orchards, however, to bring trees back 
into shape and to revitalize them; but the best pruning-treat- 
ment of an orchard is to prune it a little every year. It should 
be so pruned that the tops of the trees will be open, that no two 
limbs will interfere with each other, and so that the fruit itself 
will not be so abundant as to overload the tree. 

In general, it is best to prune orchard trees late in winter or 
early in spring. It is sometimes better, however, to leave peaches 
and other tender fruits until after the buds have swollen, or 
even after the flowers have fallen, in order that one may deter- 
mine how much they have been injured by the winter. Grape 
vines should be pruned in winter or not later (in New York) 
than the first of March. If pruned later than this, they may 
bleed. The above remarks will apply to other trees as well as 
to fruits. 

Thinning the fruit. 

If the. best size and quality of fruit are desired, care must be 
taken to see that the plant does not overbear. 

Thinning of fruit has four general uses : to cause the remaining 
fruit to grow larger; to increase the chances of annual crops ; 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 413 

to save the vitality of the tree; to enable one to combat insects 
and diseases by destroying the injured fruit. 

The thinning is nearly always performed soon after the fruit 
is thoroughly set. It is then possible to determine which of the 
fruits are likely to persist. Peaches are usually thinned when 
they are the size of one's thumb. If thinned before this time, 
they are so small that it is difficult to pick them off; and 
it is not so easy to see the work of the curculio and thereby to 
select the injured fruits. Similar remarks apply to other fruits. 
The general tendency is, even with those who thin their 
fruits, not to thin enough. It is usually safer to take off 
what would seem to be too many than not to take off enough. 
The remaining specimens are better. Varieties that tend to 
overbear profit very greatly by thinning. This is notably the 
case with many Japanese plums, which, if not thinned, are 
very inferior. 

Thinning may also be accomplished by pruning. Cutting 
off the fruit-buds will have the effect of removing the fruit. In 
the case of tender fruits, as peaches, however, it may not be 
advisable to thin very heavily by means of pruning, since the 
fruit may be still further thinned by the remaining days of win- 
ter, by late spring frost, or by the leaf-curl or other disease. 
However, the proper pruning of a peach tree in winter is, in 
part, a thinning of the fruit. The peach is borne on the wood of 
the previous season's growth. The best fruits are to be expected 
on the strongest and heaviest growth. It is the practice of 
peach-growers to remove all the weak and immature wood from 
the inside of the tree. This has the effect of thinning out the 
inferior fruit and allowing the energy of the tree to be expended 
on the remainder. 

Apples are rarely thinned; but, in many cases, thinning can 
be done with profit. 



414 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Washing and scrubbing the trees. 

The washing of orchard trees is an old practice. It usually 
results in making a tree more vigorous. One reason is that it 
destroys insects and fungi that lodge underneath the bark ; but 
probably the chief reason is that it softens the bark and allows 
the trunk to expand. It is possible, also, that the potash from 
the soap or lye eventually passes into the ground and affords 
some plant-food. Trees are ordinarily washed with soap suds or 
with a lye solution. The material is usually applied with an 
old broom or a stiff brush. The scrubbing of the tree is perhaps 
nearly or quite as beneficial as the application of the wash itself. 

It is customary to wash trees late in spring or early in summer, 
and again in the fall, with the idea that such washing destroys 
the eggs and the young of borers. It no doubt will destroy 
borers if they are just getting a start, but it will not keep away 
the insects that lay the eggs, and will not destroy the borers that 
have found their way beneath the bark. It is perhaps quite as 
well to wash the trees very early in the spring, when they are 
starting into growth. 

It is an old practice to wash trees with strong lye when they 
are affected with the oyster-shell bark louse. The modern 
method of treating these pests, however, is to spray with some 
kerosene or oil compound when the young growth is starting, 
for at that time the young insects are migrating to the new wood 
and they are very easily destroyed (p. 204). 

The whitewashing of the trunks of trees tends also to relieve 
them of insects and fungi ; and it is probable that in hot and dry 
regions the white covering affords protection from climate. 

Gathering and keeping fruit (see p. 158). 

Nearly all fruits should be gathered as soon as they will read- 
ily part from the stems on which they are borne. With many 
perishable fruits the proper time for gathering will be deter- 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 415 

mined largely by the distance they are to be shipped. With the 
exception of winter varieties of apples and pears and a few kinds 
of grapes, it is best to dispose of fruit soon after it is gathered, 
unless it is kept for family use. 

If for winter use, the fruit should at once be placed in the 
cellar or fruit house in which it is to be stored, and there kept as 
near the freezing point as possible. There will be less danger of 
shriveling if the fruit is placed at once in closed barrels or 
other tight packages, but if proper ventilation is provided, it 
may be kept in bins with little loss. Even though no ice is 
used, it will be possible to maintain a fairly low temperature 
by opening the windows at night when the outside atmosphere 
is colder than that inside the building, and closing them during 
the day as the outer air becomes warmer. 

Fruit should be handled with great care at all times, for if 
the cells become broken by rough handling, the keeping quali- 
ties will be greatly injured. The illustrations (Figs. 187-189) 
show three types of fruit storage houses. 

Apples and winter pears may be packed in sand or leaves in 
the cellar (in boxes) and thereby be kept from shriveling. 

Almond. — The almond tree is seldom seen in the eastern states, 
but now and then one will be found in a yard and not bearing. The 
failure to bear may be due to frost injury or lack of pollination. 

The almond is about as hardy as the peach, but it blooms so early 
in the spring that it is little grown east of the Pacific slope. It is an 
interesting ornamental tree, and its early bloom is a merit when the 
fruit is not desired. The almonds commonly sold by nurserymen in 
the east are hard-shell varieties, and the nuts are not good enough for 
commerce. The almond fruit is a drupe, like the peach, but the flesh 
is thin and hard and the pit is the "almond" of commerce. Culture 
as for peach. 

The "flowering almonds" are bushes of different species from the 
fruit-bearing tree (p. 299). They are usually grafted on plum, and 
the stock is likely to throw up suckers and cause trouble. 



416 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Apples thrive over a wider range of territory and under more varied 
conditions than any other tree fruit. This means that they are easy 
to grow. In fact they are so easy to grow that they are usually neg- 
lected. 

Apples do best on a strong, sandy loam soil, or a light clay loam. 
While a soil very rich in organic matter is not desirable, good results 
cannot be secured unless it contains a fair amount of vegetable matter. 
A clover sod is particularly desirable for this as well as for other fruits. 

For a commercial orchard, most varieties should be from 35 to 40 
feet apart; but the slow-growing and long-lived sorts may be at 40 
feet, and, halfway between in both directions, some of the short- 
lived, early-bearing varieties may be placed, to be removed after they 
begin to crowd. In home grounds the trees may be placed some- 
what closer than 35 to 40 feet, especially if they are planted on the 
boundaries, so that the limbs may project freely in one direction. 

It is ordinarily advisable, especially in the humid climates east of 
the Great Lakes, to have the body of the tree 3i to 4£ feet long. 
The limbs should be trimmed up to this point when the tree is set. 
From three to five main branches may be left to form the framework 
of the top. These should be shortened back one-fourth or one-half 
when the tree is set. (Figs. 142-145) Subsequent pruning should keep 
the top of the tree open and maintain it in more or less symmetrical 
form. West of the Great Lakes, particularly on the plains and in the 
semi-arid regions, the top may be started much nearer the ground. 

In orchard conditions, the trees should be kept in clean culture, 
especially for the first few years; but this is not always possible in home 
yards. In lieu of tillage, the sward may be mulched each fall with 
stable manure, and commercial fertilizer may be applied each fall or 
spring. If fruit is wanted rather than foliage and shade, care should 
be taken not to make ground too rich, but to keep it in such condition 
that the tree is making a fairly vigorous growth, with good strong foli- 
age, but is not overgrowing. An apple tree in full bearing is usually 
in good condition if the twigs grow 10 to 18 inches each season. 

Apple trees should begin to bear when three to five years planted, 
and at ten years should be bearing good crops. With good treatment, 
they should continue to bear for thirty or more years in the northeast- 
ern states. 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 417 

Insects and diseases of the apple (see p. 198) . 

Among the insects most commonly found on the apple tree are the 
codlin-moth, canker-worm, and tent-caterpillar. The codlin-moth 
lays its egg on the fruit soon after the blossoms fall, and the larvae, 
on hatching, eat their way inside. A thorough spraying of the trees 
with arsenites (p. 201) within a week after the blossoms fall will do much 
toward destroying them; and a second application, in about three 
weeks, will be essential. The canker-worm (Fig. 217) and tent-cater- 
pillars feed on the leaves, and can also be destroyed by means of arsen- 
ites. To be effective against the former, however, the applications 
must be made soon after they hatch, and very thoroughly. 

A close watch should be kept for borers. Whenever the bark 
appears to be dead or sunken in patches, remove it and search for the 
cause. A borer will usually be found underneath the bark. About 
the base of the tree the most serious injury occurs from borers, since 
the insect which enters there bores into the hard wood. His presence 
can be determined by the chips that are cast from his burrows. If 
the trees are well cultivated and in a thrifty growing condition, the 
injury will be greatly reduced. It will be well to wash the trunks 
and larger branches with soft soap, thinned with water so that it can 
be applied with a brush or broom, during the spring. The addition 
of an ounce of Paris green in each five gallons of the wash will be of 
value. The only real remedy, however, is to dig the borers out. 

The most troublesome disease of the apple is the apple-scab, which 
disfigures the fruit as well as lessens its size. It also often does much 
harm to the foliage, and thus checks the growth of the trees (Fig. 214) . 
The Baldwin, Fameuse, Northern Spy and Red Canada are particularly 
subject to this disease, and it is much more troublesome in moist 
seasons than when the weather is dry. The use of fungicides will do 
much to lessen the injury from this disease. 

Varieties of apple. 

The selection of varieties of apples for home use is, to a large extent, 

a personal matter; and no one may say what to plant. A variety 

that is successfully grown in one section may prove disappointing 

in another. One should study the locality in which he wishes to 

2e 



418 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

plant and choose those varieties which are the most successfully- 
grown there, — choosing from amongst the successful kinds those 
which he likes best and which seem best to meet the purposes foi 
which he is to grow them. 

For the northern and eastern states, the following varieties will 
generally be found valuable : — 

Early. — Yellow Transparent, Early Harvest, Early Strawberry, 
Primate, Dyer, Summer Rose, Early Joe, Red Astrachan, Golden 
Sweet, Oldenburg,* Summer Pearmain, Williams (Favorite), Chenango, 
Bough (Sweet), Summer Queen, Gravenstein,* Jefferis, Porter, Maiden 
Blush. 

Autumn. — Bailey (Sweet), Fameuse,* Jersey Sweet, Fall Pippin, 
Wealthy,* Mother, Twenty Ounce, Magnate. 



271. The Jonathan. 

Winter. — Jonathan* (Fig. 271), Hubbardston,* Grimes,* Tomp- 
kins King,* Wagener* (Fig. 272), Baldwin,* Yellow Bellflower, 
Tolman (Sweet), Northern Spy,* Red Canada,* Roxbury, Mcintosh,* 
Yellow Newtown (Plate XXI), Golden Russet, Belmont, Melon, Lady, 
Rambo, York Imperial, Pomme Gris, Esopus (Spitzenburgh), Swaar, 
Peck (Pleasant), Rhode Island Greening, Sutton, Delicious, Stayman 
Winesap, Westfield (Seek-no-further). 

* The varieties marked with an asterisk (*) are particularly valuable for 
market purposes as well as for home use; the others are chiefly desirable for 
home use. 

\ 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 



419 



For the South and Southwest the varieties named in the following 
list are of value : — 

Early. — Red June, Yellow Transparent, Red Astrachan, Summer 
Queen, Benoni, Oldenburg, Gravenstein, Maiden Blush, Earlyripe,* 
Williams,* Early Cooper,* Horse. 




272. The Wagener. 

Autumn. — Haas, Late Strawberry, Oconee, Rambo, Peck (Peck 
Pleasant), Carter Blue, Bonum,* Smokehouse,* Hoover. 




273. Pewaukee Apple. 

Winter. — Shockley, Rome Beauty,* Smith Cider, Grimes, Bucking- 
ham, Jonathan,* Winesap, Kinnard, York Imperial, Gilpin (Romanite), 

* Ibid. 



420 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Ralls (Genet), Limbertwig, Royal Lumbertwig, Stayman Winesap,* 
Milam, Virginia Beauty,* Terry,* Ingram.* 

In the Northwest only such varieties as are extremely hardy will be 
satisfactory, and among those likely to succeed we may mention: — 

Early. — Yellow Transparent, Tetofski, Oldenburg.* 

Autumn. — Fameuse, Longfield, Wealthy, McMahan,* Mcintosh,* 
Shiawassee. 

Winte r. — Wolf River,* Hibernal, Northwestern (Greening), Pe- 
waukee (Fig. 273), Switzer, Golden Russet, Patten (Greening).* 

Apricot. — This fruit is not often seen in home gardens in the East, 
although it deserves to be better known. When grown at all, it is 
likely to be trained on walls, after the English custom. 

In the latitude of New York, the apricot has proved as hardy as the 
peach. Given the right conditions as to soil and exposure, it will 
yield abundant crops, ripening its fruits about three weeks in advance 
of early peaches. 

The apricot usually thrives best on strong land; but otherwise the 
treatment given the peach suits it very well. The soil should be rather 
dry; especially should the subsoil be such that no water may stand 
around the roots. The exposure should be to the north or west to 
retard the blooming period, as the one great drawback to the success- 
ful fruiting is the early blooming and subsequent freezing of the flowers 
or the small fruits. 

The two serious difficulties in the growing of apricots are the ravages 
of the curculio, and the danger to the flowers from the spring frosts. It 
is usually almost impossible to secure fruits from one or two isolated 
apricot trees, because the curculios will take them all. It is possible, 
also, that some of the varieties need cross-pollination. 

Among the best kinds of apricots are Montgamet, Jackson, Royal, 
St. Ambroise, Early Golden, Harris, Roman (Fig. 274) and Moorpark. 
In the East, apricots are commonly worked on plums, but they also 
thrive on the peach. 

The introduction of the Russian varieties, a few years ago, added to 

* The varieties marked with an asterisk (*) are particularly valuable for 
market purposes as well as for home use; the others are chiefly desirable for 
home use. 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 



421 



the list several desirable kinds that have proved hardier and a little 
later in blooming than the old kinds. The fruits of the Russian va- 
rieties, while not as large as the other varieties, fully equal many of 
them in flavor, and they are very productive. They bear more pro- 
fusely and with less care than the old-fashioned and larger kinds. 




274. Roman Apricot. 



Blackberry. — In a general way, the planting and care of a black- 
berry plantation is the same as required by raspberries. From the 
fact that they ripen later in the season, when droughts are most com- 
mon, even greater attention should be given to placing them in land that 
is retentive of moisture, and to providing an efficient mulch, which 
can generally best be secured with a cultivator. The smaller-growing 
kinds (as Early Harvest and Wilson) may be planted 4 x 7 ft., the rank- 
growing varieties (as Snyder) 6 x 8 ft. Thorough cultivation through- 
out the season will help in a material degree to hold the moisture neces- 
sary to perfect a good crop. The soil should be cultivated very shallow, 
however, so as not to disturb the roots, as the breaking of the roots 
starts a large number of suckers that have to be cut out and destroyed. 



422 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

While hill culture (as recommended above) is desirable for the garden, 
commercial growers generally use continuous rows. 

Blackberries, like dewberries and raspberries, bear but one crop on 
the cane. That is, canes which spring up this year bear next year. 
From 3 to 6 canes are sufficient to be left in each hill. The superfluous 
ones are thinned out soon after they start from the ground. The old 
canes should be cut out soon after fruiting, and burned. The new 
shoots should be pinched back at the height of 2 or 3 ft. if the plants are 
to support themselves. If to be fastened to wires, they may be allowed 
to grow throughout the season and be cut back when tied to the wires 
in winter or early spring. 

Blackberry plants are sometimes laid down in cold climates, — the 
tops being bent over and held to the ground by earth or sods thrown on 
their tips (Fig. 155) . 

The most troublesome disease of the blackberry is orange rust 
(conspicuous on the under sides of the leaves), which often proves very 
destructive, particularly to Kittatinny and a few other sorts. There is 
no remedy, and on the first appearance of the disease the infected plants 
should be dug up and burned (p. 212). 

Varieties of blackberries. 

Many of the better varieties of blackberries are lacking in hardiness, 
and cannot be grown except in the more favorable localities. Snyder 
and Taylor are most generally successful, although Wilson and Early 
Harvest are often grown on a large scale for market, and do well with 
winter protection. Eldorado is much like Snyder, that seems hardy 
and productive. Erie, Minnewaski, Kittatinny, and Early King are 
in many sections large and valuable sorts. 

Cherry. — Of cherries there are two common types, the sweet 
cherries and the sour cherries. The sweet cherries are larger and taller- 
growing trees. They comprise the varieties known as the hearts, 
bigarreaus, and dukes. The sour cherries (Fig. 275) include the various 
kinds of morellos and pie cherries, and these usually ripen after the 
sweet cherries. 

The sour cherries make low, round-headed trees. The fruits are 
extensively used for canning. Sour cherries thrive well on clay loams. 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 



423 




275. Sour or pie cherries. 



The sour cherry should be planted 18 by 18 ft. apart, in well-prepared, 
under-drained soil. The trees may be slightly trimmed back each year, 
keeping the head low and bushy. 

The sweet cherries have proved disappointing in many instances 
from the rotting of the fruit. This may never be entirely avoided, but 
good cultivation, soil 
not too rich in nitro- 
gen, attention to 
spraying, and picking 
the fruit when dry, 
will lessen the loss 
very much. In years 
of severe rotting the 
fruit should be picked 
before it becomes fully 
ripe, placed in a cool, 
airy room and allowed 
to color. It will be 
nearly as well flavored as if left on the tree ; and, as the fungus usually 
attacks only the ripe fruit, a considerable part of the crop may be 
saved. Set the trees 25 or 30 ft. apart. Only very well-drained land 
should be devoted to sweet cherries, preferably one of a somewhat 
gravelly nature. 

Leaf -blight is readily controlled by timely spraying with bordeaux 
mixture (see bottom p. 211). The curculio or fruit worm may be con- 
trolled by jarring, as for plums, or by spraying (p. 202). The jarring 
process is seldom employed with cherries for the curculio, inasmuch 
as the poison spray seems, for some reason, to be particularly effec- 
tive on these fruits. 

Varieties of cherry. 

Of the sour varieties, May Duke (Fig. 36), Richmond, Dyehouse, 
Montmorency, Ostheim, Hortense (Fig. 34), Late Kentish, Suda, and 
Morello (English Morello) (Fig. 35) are the most valuable. The fol- 
lowing sweet varieties are of value where they succeed: Rockport, 
(Yellow) Spanish, Elton, (Governor) Wood, Coe, Windsor, (Black) 
Tartarian, and Downer. 



424 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Cranberry. — The growing of cranberries in artificial bogs is an 
American industry. The common large cranberry of markets is also 
a peculiarly American fruit, since it is unknown in other countries ex- 
cept as the fruit is shipped there. 

Cranberries are grown in bogs, which may be flooded. The whole 
area is kept under water during the winter time, largely to prevent the 
plants from winter injury by the heaving and freezing and thawing of 
the bogs. Flooding is also employed at intervals for the purpose of 
drowning out insects, mitigating drought, and protecting against frost 
and fires. The ordinary practice is to choose a bog which has a creek 
running through it, or through which some creek or ditch may be di- 
verted. At the lower side of the bog flood-gates are provided, so that 
when the gates are shut, the water backs up and floods the area. It is 
best that the bog be comparatively flat, so that the water will be of 
approximately equal depth over the whole area. At the shallowest 
places the water should stand about a foot above the plants. The water 
is usually let on the bog early in December and kept on until April or 
early May. No flooding is done during the rest of the year unless there 
is some particular occasion therefor. 

All the wild and turfy growth should be taken off the bog before the 
vines are set. This is done cither by digging it off and removing it 
bodily, or by drowning it out by means of a year's flooding. The former 
method is generally considered to be the better. After the turfy growth 
is removed, the bog is smoothed, and covered 2 or 3 in. deep with clean 
sand. The vines are now set, the lower ends of them being shoved 
through the sand into the richer earth. In order to prevent a too 
rapid and tangled growth of vine, it is customary to resand the bog 
every three or four years to a depth of one-fourth or one-half inch. 
When sanding is not practicable, the vines may be mown off when they 
become too luxuriant. 

The plants for setting are merely cuttings or branches of the vines. 
These cuttings may be 5 to 10 inches long. They are inserted into the 
ground in a hole made by a crowbar or stick. They are usually planted 
at distances of 12 to 18 inches each way, and the vines are allowed 
to cover the entire ground as with a mat. In three years a good crop 
should be secured, if the weeds and wild growth are kept down. A crop 
ranges between 50 to 100 barrels per acre. 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 425 

Currant. — As the currant is one of the hardiest and most productive 
of fruits in the North, so is it often neglected, the patch allowed to 
become foul with grass, never thinned or trimmed, the worms eating 
the leaves until, in the course of time, the plants weaken and die. 
Along the fence is no place to plant currants, or, indeed, any other fruit; 
plant out in the open, at least 5 feet from anything that will interfere 
with cultivation. 

No fruit crop will respond more readily to good care than the currant. 
Clean cultivation and a liberal use of manure or fertilizers will certainly 
be followed by well-paying crops. One- or two-year-old plants may be 
set, 4 by 6 feet. Trim the bush by cutting off most of the suckers below 
the surface of the ground. The currant should have cool moist soil. 
If the season is dry, a mulch of straw or leaves will assist the plants to 
establish themselves. 

Currants are easily propagated by mature cuttings of the new or 
previous year's canes. 

The red and white currants bear mostly on two-year-old or older 
wood. A succession of young shoots should be allowed to grow to 
take the place of the old bearing wood. Cut out the canes as they grow 
older. The partial shade afforded by a young orchard suits the currant 
well, and if the ground is in good condition, no bad results will follow 
to the orchard, provided the currants are removed before the trees need 
the entire feeding space. 

A currant patch should continue in good bearing for 10 to 20 years, 
if properly handled. One very important point is to keep the old, weak 
canes cut out, and a succession of two to four new ones coming from the 
root each year. 

To combat the currant worm, spray thoroughly with Paris green to 
kill the first brood, just as soon as holes can be seen in the lower leaves 
— usually before the plants are in bloom. For the second brood, if it 
appear, spray with white hellebore (p. 203). For borers, cut out and 
burn the affected canes. 

Varieties of currants. 

In most sections the Red Dutch will be found to be the most satis- 
factory variety, as the plants are much less injured by borers than are 
Cherry (Plate XXIII), Fay, and Versailles, which arc larger and better 



426 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



varieties, and are to be preferred in sections where the borers are not 
troublesome. Victoria is a valuable market sort where borers are 
numerous, as it is little injured by them. The same is also true of 
(Prince) Albert, which is little attacked by currant worms and is 
particularly valuable as a late sort. White Dutch and White Grape 
are valuable light-colored varieties, and (Black) Naples as a variety 
for jelly. London (London Market) is also proving to be satisfactory 
in some sections. 



Dewberry. 




276. Lucretia dew^ 
berry. 



The dewberry may be called an early trailing black- 
berry. The culture is very simple. Support 
should be given to the canes, as they are very 
slender and rank growers. A wire trellis or large- 
meshed fence-wire answers admirably; or (and this 
is the better general method) they may be tied to 
stakes. The fruits are large and showy, which, 
combined with their earliness, makes them desir- 
able ; but they are usually deficient in flavor. The 
Lucretia (Fig. 276) is the leading variety. 

Lay the canes on the ground in winter. In the 
spring tie all the canes from each plant to a stake. 
After fruiting, cut the old canes and burn them (as 
for blackberries). In the meantime, the young 
canes (for next year's fruiting) are growing. These 
may be tied up as they grow, to be out of the way 
of the cultivator. Dewberries are one to two 
weeks earlier than blackberries. 



Fig. — The fig is little grown in the East except as a curiosity, but 
on the Pacific coast it has gained considerable prominence as an orchard 
fruit. Figs will stand considerable frost, and seedling or inferior 
varieties grow out-of-doors without protection as far north as Virginia. 
Many of the varieties fruit on young sprouts, and, inasmuch as the 
roots will stand considerable cold, these varieties will often give a few 
figs in the northern states. Figs have been fruited in the open ground 
in Michigan. In regions having ten degrees of frost, the fig should be 
laid down in winter. For this purpose the plants are pruned to branch 
from the ground, and the soft tops are bent to the surface and covered 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 



427 



with earth. In commercial cultivation, fig trees grow large, and they 
stand 18 to 25 feet apart; but in gardens where they are to be bent over, 
they are to be kept as bushes. 

Adriatic is the most commonly grown white fig. Among the other 
varieties are California Black or Mission Fig, Brown Ischia, Brown 
Turkey, White Ischia, and Celeste (Celestial). 



Gooseberry. — The gooseberry differs little from the currant in its 
requirements as to soil, pruning, and general care. The plants should 
be set 3 to 4 feet apart; 
rows 5 to 7 feet apart. 
Select a rich, rather 
moist soil. The tops 
need no winter protec- 
tion. If mildew and 
worms are to be kept 
in check, spraying must 
be begun with the very 
first sign of trouble and 
be thoroughly done 
(pp. 203, 209). 

The propagation of 
the gooseberry is similar 
to that of the currant, 
although the practice 
of earthing up a whole 
plant, causing every 
branch thus covered to 
throw out roots, is prac- 
ticed with the European varieties. The rooted branches are cut off 
the following spring and planted in nursery rows or sometimes directly 
in the field. In order to succeed with this method, the plant should 
have been cut back to the ground so that all the shoots are yearling. 

Since the advent of the practice of spraying with fungicides to pre- 
vent mildew, the culture of the gooseberry has increased. There is 
now no reason why, with a little care, good crops of many of the best 
English varieties may not be grown. 




277. One of the English-American gooseberries. 



428 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

A large part of the gooseberry crop is picked green for culinary pur- 
poses. Several of the English varieties and their derivatives have 
proved of value, having larger fruits than the natives (Fig. 277). 

Varieties of gooseberries. 

For ordinary use the Downing can generally be recommended. It is 
hardy, productive, of fair size, and greenish white in color. Houghton 
is even more hardy and productive, but the fruit is rather small and 
of a dark red color. Among the varieties of European origin that can 
be successfully grown, if the mildew can be prevented, are Industry, 
Triumph, Keepsake, Lancashire Lad, and Golden Prolific. Among 
other varieties that are promising are Champion, Columbus, Chau- 
tauqua., and Josselyn (Red Jacket) . 

Grape. — One of the surest of fruit crops is the grape, a crop each 
year being reasonably certain after the third year from the time of 
setting the vines; and the good amateur kinds are numerous. 

The grape does well on any soil that is Under good cultivation and 
well drained. A soil with considerable clay is better under these cir- 
cumstances than a light, sandy loam. The exposure should be to the 
sun ; and'the place should admit of cultivation on all sides. 

For planting, 1- or 2-year-old vines should be used, being set 
either in the fall or early spring. At planting, the vine is cut back to 
3 or 4 eyes, and the roots are well shortened in. The hole in which the 
plant is to be set should be large enough to allow a full spreading of the 
roots. If the season should be dry, a mulch of coarse litter may be 
spread around the vine. If all the buds start, the strongest one or 
two may be allowed to grow. The canes arising from these buds should 
be staked and allowed to grow through the season; or in large planta- 
tions the first-year canes may be allowed to lie on the ground. 

The second year one cane should be cut back to the same number of 
eyes as the first year. After growth begins in the spring, two of the 
strongest buds should be allowed to remain. These two canes now 
arising may be grown to a single stake through the second summer, or 
they may be spread horizontally on a trellis. These are the canes 
that form the permanent arms or parts of the vine. From them start 
the upright shoots which, in succeeding years, are to bear the fruits. 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 429 

In order to understand the pruning of grapes, the operator must 
fully grasp this principle : Fruit is borne on wood of the present season, 
which arises from wood of the previous season. To illustrate : A growing 
shoot, or cane, of 1909 makes buds. In 1910 a shoot arises from each 
bud; and near the base of these shoots the grapes are borne (1 to 4 
clusters on each). While every bud on the 1909 shoot may produce 
shoots or canes in 1910, only the strongest of these new canes will 
bear fruit. The skilled grape-grower can tell by the looks of his cane 
(as he prunes it in winter) which buds will give rise to the grape-pro- 
ducing wood the following season. The larger and stronger buds 
usually give best results; but if the cane itself is very big and stout, 
or if it is very weak and slender, he does not exp'ect good results from 
any of its buds. A hard, well-ripened cane the diameter of a man's 
little finger is the ideal size. 

Another principle to be mastered is this : A vine should bear only a 
limited number of clusters, — say from 30 to 80. A shoot bears clusters 
near its base; beyond these clusters the shoot grows on into a long, 
leafy cane. An average of two clusters may be reckoned to a shoot. 
If the vine is strong enough to bear 60 clusters, 30 good buds 
must be left at the pruning (which is done from December to late 
February). 

The essential operation of pruning a grape vine, therefore, is each 
year to cut back a limited number of good canes to a few buds, and to 
cut off entirely all the remaining canes or wood of the previous season's 
growth. If a cane is cut back to 2 or 3 buds, the stub-like part which 
remains is called a spur. Present systems, however, cut each cane 
back to 8 or 10 buds (on strong varieties), and 3 or 4 canes are left, — 
all radiating from near the head or trunk of the vine. The top of the 
vine does not grow bigger from year to year, after it has once covered 
the trellis, but is cut back to practically the same number of buds each 
year. Since these buds are on new wood, it is evident that they are 
each year farther and farther removed from the head of the vine. In 
order to obviate this difficulty, new canes are taken out each year or 
two from near the head of the vine, and the 2-year- or 3-year-old wood 
is cut away. 

The training of grapes is a different matter. A dozen different 
systems of training may be practiced on the same trellis and from the 



430 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




same style of pruning, — for training is only the disposition or ar- 
rangement of the parts. 

On arbors, it is best to carry one permanent arm or trunk from each 
root over the framework to the peak. Each year the canes are cut 
back to short spurs (of 2 or 3 buds) along the sides 
of this trunk. 

Grapes are set from 6 to 8 feet apart in rows 
which are 8 to 10 feet apart. A trellis made of 2 or 
3 wires is the best support. Slat trellises catch too 
much wind and blow down. Avoid stimulating 
manures. In very cold climates, the vines may be 
taken off the trellis in early winter and laid on the 
ground and lightly covered with 

278 'bea S Tied 7 *° eaith ' A1 ° ng thG boUndaries of 
home lots, where grapes are often 

planted, little is to be expected in the way of fruit 

because the ground is not well tilled. 

The grape is subject to many insects and diseases, 

some of which are very destructive. The black-rot 

is the most usual trouble. See p. 209. 

To produce bunches of high quality and free from 
rot and frost injury, grapes are some- 
times bagged. When the grapes are 279. The second 
about half grown, the bunch is covered stageinadjust- 
with a grocer's manila bag. The bags ing the bag " 
remain until the fruit is ripe. The grapes usually mature 
earlier in the bags. The top of the bag is split, and 
the flaps are secured over the branch with a pin ; Figs. 
278, 279, 280 explain the operation. 

In all the above discussion, the so-called native 
grapes alone are considered. In California, the Euro- 
pean or vinifera types are grown, the requirements of 

which are radically different from those of the eastern kinds. 





280. The bag- 
ging complete. 



Varieties of grapes. 

Under nearly all conditions, the Concord will be a valuable black 
variety, although Worden, which is a few days earlier, may be pre- 



I - , .. , i i* 



j\*i' i M ■/ 



^«^«» . > 






»V-A 



r v , 



v .: ' ■ v 



~ - * | 



.'.V H 



'- ' . X 









XXII. Wall-training of a pear tree. 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 431 

ferred by many. Moore (Moore Early) has been our best very early 
black variety, but is likely to be superseded by Campbell, which is a 
stronger vine, more productive, bunches larger, fruit of better quality, 
and of superior keeping qualities, making it valuable for shipping pur- 
poses. Catawba, Delaware, and Brighton are among the best red 
varieties, although Agawam and Salem are much used. Winchell 
(Green Mountain) is the best early white variety, and in most sections 
Niagara, a late white sort, does well. Diamond (Moore Diamond) is a 
white grape of better quality than Niagara. 

Grapes under glass (S. W. Fletcher). 

The European grapes rarely thrive out of doors in eastern America. 
Grape houses are necessary, with or without artificial heat. Fruit for 
home use may be grown very satisfactorily in a cold grapery (without 
artificial heat). A simple lean-to against the south side of a building 
or wall is cheap and serviceable. When a separate building is desired, 
an even-span house running north and south is preferable. There is 
no advantage in having a curved roof, except as a matter of looks. A 
compost of four parts rotted turf to one of manure is laid on a sloping 
cement bottom outside the house, making a border 12 feet wide and 2 
feet deep. The cement may be replaced with rubble on well-drained 
soils, but it is a poor makeshift. Every three years the upper 6 inches 
of the border should be renewed with manure. The border inside the 
house is prepared likewise. Two-year-old potted vines are planted 
about 4 feet apart in a single row. Part of the roots go through a 
crevice in the wall to the outer border and part remain inside; or all 
may go outside if the house is desired for other purposes. One strong 
cane is trained to a wire trellis hanging at least 18 inches from the glass, 
and is cut back to 3 feet the first year, 6 the second, and 9 the third. 
Do not be in a hurry to get a long cane. Pruning is on the spur system, 
as recommended for arbors on p. 430. The vines are usually laid 
on the ground for winter and covered with leaves or wrapped with 
cloth. 

As soon as the buds swell in early spring, tie the vines to the trellis 
and start out one shoot from each spur, rubbing off all others. After 
the berries begin to color, however, it is better to leave all further 
growth to shade the fruit. Pinch back each of these laterals two 



432 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

joints beyond the second bunch. To keep down red spider and thrips, 
the foliage should be sprayed with water every bright morning except 
during the blooming season. At least one-third of the berries should 
be thinned from each bunch; do not be afraid of taking out too many. 
Water the inside border frequently all through the summer, and the 
outside occasionally if the season is dry. Mildew may appear in July. 
The best preventives are to syringe faithfully, admit air freely, and 
sprinkle sulfur on the ground. 

Fruit may be kept fresh on the vines in a warm (or artificially 
heated) grapery until late December ; in a coldhouse it must be picked 
before frost. After the fruit is off, ventilate from top and bottom 
and withhold water, so as thoroughly to ripen the wood. Along in 
November the canes are pruned, covered with straw or wrapped with 
mats and laid down till spring. Black Hamburg is superior to all other 
varieties for a cold grapery; Bo wood Muscat, Muscat of Alexandria, 
and Chasselas Musque may be added in the warmhouse. Good vines 
will live and bear almost indefinitely. 

Mulberry. — Both for fruit and ornament the mulberry should be 
more generally planted. Even if the fruit is not to the taste, the tree 
is naturally open-centered and round-headed, and is an interesting 
subject; some of the varieties have finely cut leaves. The fruits are 
in great demand by the birds, and after they begin to ripen the straw- 
berry beds and cherry trees are freer from robins and other fruit- 
eating birds. For this reason alone they are a valuable tree for the 
fruit-grower. Trees may be purchased cheaper than one can propa- 
gate them. 

If planted in orchard form, place them 25 to 30 feet apart. 
About the borders of a place they can go closer. The Rus- 
sian varieties are often planted for windbreaks, for they are very 
hardy and thrive under the greatest neglect; and for this purpose 
they may be planted 8 to 20 feet apart. The Russians make ex- 
cellent screens. They stand clipping well. The fruit of the Russians 
varies in quality, as the trees are usually directly from seed; but now 
and then, a tree bears excellent fruit. 

New American, Trowbridge, and Thorburn are leading kinds of 
fruit-bearing mulberries for the North. The true Downing is not 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 433 

hardy in the northern states; but New American is often sold under 
this name. Mulberries thrive in any good soil, and need no special 
treatment. 

Nuts. — The nut trees demand too much room for most home- 
ground fruit plantations, although they are also useful for windbreaks 
and shade. The hickories, all American, make excellent lawn trees, 
and should be better known. The filberts and cobnuts, small trees 
or bushes, are not successfully grown in this country except in very 
special cases. 

The commercial nut-growing in the United States and Canada is 
chiefly of almonds (p. 415), walnuts, and pecans, with some attempt 
at chestnuts. Of these the chestnut is the most adaptable for home 
places in the northeastern section. 

Of chestnuts there are three types in cultivation: the European, 
the Japanese, and the American. The American, or native chestnuts, 
of which there are several improved varieties, are the hardiest and 
most reliable, and the nuts are the sweetest, but they are also the small- 
est. The Japanese varieties are usually injured by the winter in cen- 
tral New York. The European varieties are somewhat hardier, and 
some of the varieties will thrive in the northern states. Chestnuts 
are very easily grown, although the bark disease (p. 208) now threatens 
them. They usually bear better when two or more trees are planted 
near each other. Sprouts in old chestnut clearings are often allowed 
to remain, and sometimes they are grafted to the improved varieties. 
The young trees may be grafted in the spring by the whip-graft or cleft- 
graft method; but the cions should be perfectly dormant, and the 
operation should be very carefully done. Even with the best work- 
manship, a considerable percentage of the grafts are likely to fail or 
to break off after two or three years. The most popular single variety 
of chestnut is the Paragon, which bears large and excellent nuts when 
the tree is very young. When the home ground is large enough, two 
or three of these trees should be planted near the borders. 

Orange. — Oranges are grown extensively in Florida, in places 
along the Gulf, and in many parts of California, but in the most favored 
sections there is occasionally some injury from cold or frost to the 
trees or fruit. 
2p 



434 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

The soil preferred for oranges in California is a rich, deep alluvium, 
avoiding hard-pan or adobe subsoils. Stagnant water in the subsoil 
is a fatal defect. Although they can be grown near the ocean at a 
lower level, an elevation of 600 to 1200 feet is generally desirable. 
While southern California is particularly adapted to orange culture, 
the fruit is successfully raised along the foot-hills of the San Joaquin 
and Sacramento valleys and in other parts of the state. 

In Florida, pine lands with a clay subsoil are generally preferred for 
oranges, but if properly handled, good results can be obtained from 
hammock land. As elevated spots cannot be secured, a timber belt 
surrounding the orchard or along the north and west sides is 
desirable. 

The distance for the large-growing kinds of orange in the orchard 
is from 25 to 30 feet each way, but the half-dwarf kinds, such as 
Bahia or Washington Navel, may be as close as 20 feet each way, 
although 25 feet will be desirable. If the roots are sacked, the 
trees should be placed in the hole without removing the cover- 
ing, and the soil should then be packed about them; but if they 
are puddled, a mound should be made in the bottom of the hole. In 
the center an opening should be made into which the tap-root can be 
inserted. After the soil has been firmly packed about it, the other 
roots should be spread out and the hole filled with good soil, packing 
it carefully. Care should be taken that the roots are not exposed in 
handling the trees, and if the weather is hot and dry, the tops should be 
shaded. Water may often be used with good results in settling the 
soil about the roots. 

When transplanted, the tops should be cut back in proportion to 
the amount of roots lost in digging the trees. The head is usually 
started with the branches about 2 feet from the ground. Each year 
while the trees are small, the strong shoots should be cut back to 
preserve a symmetrical form and the weak and surplus shoots should 
be removed. 

The cultivation of orange orchards should be the same as recom- 
mended for other fruits, except that as they grow in hot, dry climates, 
it should be even more thorough, that the evaporation of moisture 
from the soil may be reduced to a minimum. California growers have 
found that by frequent shallow cultivation they can reduce the amount 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 435 

of water that must be applied by irrigation, and that frequent tillage 
and a little water will give better results than little or no cultivation 
and a large amount of water. The amount of water required will 
also depend on the season and the character of the soil. Thus on strong 
soils and after a heavy rainfall no irrigation will be required, while 
sandy soils will need irrigating as often as once in three or four weeks 
from May to October. As a general rule, two or three irrigations in 
a season will be ample. When used at all, water should be applied in 
sufficient quantities to wet down to the roots of the trees. Frequent 
scanty waterings may do much harm. The water is usually applied 
in furrows, and for young trees there should be one on either side of 
each row, but as the roots extend the number should be increased, 
until when five or six years old the entire orchard should be irrigated 
from furrows 4 or 5 feet apart. In Florida, irrigation is not prac- 
ticed. 

Cover-cropping in winter is now common in Florida and California, 
some of the leguminous crops being used. • 

Varieties of the orange. 

Among the best varieties are: Bahia, commonly known as Wash- 
ington Navel, Thompson Improved, Maltese Blood, Mediterranean 
Sweet, Paper Rind St.. Michael, and Valencia. Homosassa, Magnum 
Bonum, Nonpareil, Boone, Parson Brown, Pineapple, and Hart are 
favorites in Florida. The tangerines and mandarins, or the " kid- 
glove w oranges, have a thin rind that is easily detached from the rather 
dry pulp. Orange trees are frequently injured by various scale in- 
sects, but for several of the most troublesome kinds, insect parasites 
have been found that keep them partially or wholly in check, and for 
others the trees are sprayed, or fumigated with hydrocyanic acid gas. 

Peach. — Given the proper exposure, peaches may be fruited in 
many sections where now it is thought impossible to have a crop. It 
is usually the practice of the amateur to set peach trees in the shelter 
of some building, exposed on the south or east to the sun, and "in a 
pocket " as regards winds. This should be reversed, except in the' 
close vicinity of large bodies of water. The fruit-buds of peaches will 
stand very cold weather when perfectly dormant, often as low as 12° 



436 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

or 18° below zero in New York; but if the buds once become swollen, 
comparatively light freezing will destroy the crop. Therefore, if the 
trees be set on elevations where a constant air drainage may be ob- 
tained, sheltered, if at all, on the south and east from the warming 
influence of the sun, the buds will remain dormant until the ground 
becomes warm, and the chances of a failure will be lessened. This 
advice applies mostly to interior sections. 

A well-drained, sandy loam or gravelly soil suits the peach better 
than a heavy soil; but if the heavier soil is well drained, good crops 
may be secured. 

Peaches are short-lived at best, and one should be satisfied with 
three or four crops from each tree. They bear young, usually a partial 
crop the third year. If a crop may be had every other year until the 
trees are eight or ten years old, they will have well repaid the effort 
of cultivation. But they often bear twice this long. Young trees 
may be set every four or five years to replace older ones, thus having 
trees at a bearing age at all times on a small place. Trees should be 
set 14 to 18 feet apart each way. 

Peach trees are always bought when they are one year old, that is, 
one year from the bud. For example, the bud is inserted in the fall 
of 1909. It remains dormant until the spring of 1910, when it pushes 
into vigorous growth; and in the fall of 1910 the tree is ready for sale. 
Peach trees that are more than a year old are scarcely worth the buy- 
ing. It is a common practice, when setting peach trees, to prune them 
back to a whip, leaving a stub bearing not more than one bud where 
each branch is cut off. 

The three great enemies of the peach are the borer, the yellows, 
and the curculio. 

The borer is best handled by digging it out every spring and fall. 
Trees attacked by the borer have an exudation of gum about the 
crown. If the borers are dug out twice a year, they will not get 
sufficient start to make the operation very laborious. It is the only 
sure way (p. 200). 

The yellows is a communicable disease, the cause of which is not 
definitely known. It shows itself in the fruit ripening prematurely, 
with distinct red spots which extend through the flesh, and later by 
the throwing out of fine, branching, twiggy tufts along the main 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 



437 



branches (Fig. 215). The only treatment is to pull out the trees and 
burn them. Other trees may be set in the same places. 

The curculio must be captured by jarring on sheets (see Plum). 

Varieties of the peach. 

For home use it is advisable to provide varieties that will ripen in 
succession, but for market purposes, in most sections, the medium and 
late kinds should be most extensively planted. Although there are 
many varieties that have a local reputation, but are not commonly 
found in the nurseries, the following kinds are well known, and can be 
generally grown with success : Alexander, Hale Early, Rivers, St. John, 
Bishop, Connett (Southern Early), Carman, Crawford (Early and 
Late), Oldmixon, Lewis, Champion, Sneed, Greensboro, Kalamazoo, 
Stump, Elberta, Ede (Capt. Ede), Stevens (Stevens' Rareripe), Crosby, 
Gold Drop, Reeves, Chairs, Smock, Salway, and Levy (Henrietta). 

Pear. — No fruit 
plantation should be 
considered complete 
without trees of vari- 
ous kinds of pears, 
ripening fruits from 
early in August till 
winter. The late va- 
rieties are generally 
good keepers, and ex- 
tend the season into 
February, thus sup- 
plying fruit for six or 
seven months. 

As the pear grows 
to perfection on 
quince, the dwarf tree 
is peculiarly adapted 
to planting on small 
home grounds, and 
is often Used as a 281. Seckel pear. 




43* 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



boundary plant, or to serve the purpose of a screen. These dwarf 
trees should be set deep — 4 to 6 inches below the union — to prevent 




282. Duchesse d'Angouleme pear. 

the stock from growing. Dwarf trees may be set as near together as 10 
to 16 feet (p. 410), while the standard or tall-growing pears should be 
set 18 to 25 feet apart. Trees are planted when two or three years old. 




. The Kieffer pear*. 



The pear thrives on clay soil, if well under-drained, and for this 
reason may succeed in places where other fruits might fail. A good, 
steady growth should be maintained, but the use of nitrogenous 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 



439 



manures should be avoided, as they tend to make a rank growth and 
invite attacks of pear blight, which is the worst enemy of the pear 
(p. 211). 

Varieties of the pear. 

As a selection to supply a succession of varieties throughout the 
season, the following list is recommended : — 

Early. — Summer Doyenne, Bloodgood, Clapp, Osband, Elizabeth 
(Manning's Elizabeth). 

Autumn. — Bartlett, Boussock, Flemish (Flemish Beauty), Buffum, 
Howell, Seckel (Fig. 281), Louise Bonne, An- 
gouleme (Duchesse d'Angouleme) (Fig. 282) 
Sheldon. 

Winter. — Anjou, Clairgeau, Lawrence, 
Kieffer (Figs. 283, 284), Winter Nelis, and 
Easter Beurre. 

For ordinary market purposes the following 
have been proved valuable : Bartlett, Howell, 
Anjou, Clairgeau, and Lawrence. In the 
central and southern states, Kieffer is grown 
successfully. For home use this variety is 
not to be recommended in the North, because 
of its poor quality and smaller size. 

For growing as dwarfs, Angouleme 
(Duchesse d'Angouleme), Louise Bonne, 
Anjou, Clairgeau, and Lawrence are most popular, but many other 
varieties thrive on the quince. 




284. Kieffer pear. 



Plum. — Of plums there are three general or common types : first, 
the common Domestica or European plum, which gives rise to all the 
older varieties, like Lombard, Bradshaw, Green Gage, the Prunes, the 
Egg plums, the Damsons, and the like ; second, the Japanese plums, 
which have become popular within the last twenty years, and which are 
adapted to a wider range of country than the Domesticas; third, the 
native plums of several species or types, which are adapted to the 
plains, the middle and southern states, and some kinds to the cold 
North. 



440 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Wherever the Domestica and Japanese plums can be grown, the 
native plums are not destined to become popular; but many of the 
natives are much hardier than others, and. are therefore adapted to 
regions in which the Domestica and Japanese are not safe. Others of 
them are well adapted to the middle and southern states. The Domes- 
tica and Japanese plums are considerably hardier than peaches, but 
not so hardy as the apple. The northern limit of their general cul- 
tivation is the southern peninsula of Michigan, central and southern 
Ontario, central New York, and central New England. 

Plums thrive on a great variety of soils, but they do better, as a 
rule, on those that are rather heavy and have a considerable content 
of clay. In fact, many of the varieties will thrive on clay as hard as 
that in which pears will grow. On the other hand, they often thrive 
well in light, and even almost sandy soils. 

The trees are set when they are two and three years from the bud. 
It is preferable to have plum trees on stocks of the same species, but 
it is not always possible to secure them at the nurseries. In the South, 
plums are worked mostly on peach roots, and these make excellent 
trees where the climate is not too severe, and especially on the 
lighter lands on which they are planted in the South. In the North 
the larger part of the plum stocks are grown on the Myrobalan plum 
roots. This Myrobalan is an Old World species of plum, of smaller 
growth than the Domestica. This stock, therefore, tends to dwarf 
the tree, and it is also likely to throw up sprouts from the roots. 

Plum trees are set 12 to 18 feet apart. Many growers like to set 
them 8 feet apart in rows, and have the rows from 16 to 20 feet apart. 

Plums are pruned much the same as apples and pears. That is, 
the top is thinned out from year to year, and all superfluous branches 
and broken or diseased wood are removed. If the soil is very strong 
and the trees are close together, it may be well to head them in a little 
each year, especially those varieties which grow very strong and robust. 

Pests and diseases (pp. 202, 211). 

There are four leading difficulties in the growing of plums — leaf- 
blight, fruit-rot, black-knot, and curculio. 

The leaf-blight usually appears about midsummer, the leaves be- 
coming spotted and dropping off. The remedy is to spray thoroughly 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 441 

with bordeaux mixture, beginning soon after the fruits have set, and 
before the trouble begins to show. 

The fruit-rot may be prevented by the same means — that is, by 
spraying with bordeaux mixture. It is usually best to begin just after 
the fruits are well set. A very important consideration in the checking 
of this disease is to thin the fruit so that it does not hang in clusters. 
If one fruit touches another, the rot spreads from fruit to fruit in spite 
of the spraying. Some varieties, as Lombard and Abundance, are 
specially susceptible to this injury. 

The black-knot is best kept in check by cutting out the knots when- 
ever they can be seen, and burning them. As soon as the leaves drop, 
the orchard should be gone over and all knots taken out. Orchards 
that are thoroughly sprayed with bordeaux mixture for the leaf- 
blight and fruit-rot fungus are less liable to attacks of black-knot. 

The curculio, or the insect which is the parent of the worms in the 
fruit, is the inveterate enemy of the plum and other stone fruits. The 
mature beetle lays the eggs in the fruits when they are very small, 
usually beginning its work about as soon as the flowers fall. These 
eggs soon hatch, and the little maggot bores into the fruit. Those 
fruits that are attacked whilst very young ordinarily fall from the 
tree, but those attacked when they are half or more grown, may 
adhere to the tree, but remain wormy and gummy at the picking time. 
The mature beetles are sluggish in the mornings, and are easily jarred 
from the trees. Taking advantage of this fact, the fruit-grower may 
jar them on sheets; or, in large orchards, into a large canvas hopper, 
which is wheeled from tree to tree upon a wheelbarrow-like frame, and 
under the apex of which is a tin can into which the insects roll. There 
is a slit or opening in one side of the hopper, which allows the tree to 
stand nearly in the middle of the canvas. The operator then gives the 
tree two or three sharp jars with a padded pole or mallet. The edges of 
the hopper are then quickly shaken with the hands and the insects roll 
down into the tin receptacle. In this receptacle there is kerosene oil, 
or it may be emptied from time to time. Just how long this machine 
is to be run in the orchard will depend entirely on circumstances. It is 
advisable to use the catcher soon after the blossoms fall, for the purpose 
of finding out how abundant the insects are. If a few insects are 
caught from each tree, there is indication that there are enough of the 



442 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

pests to make serious trouble. If after a few days the insects seem to 
have disappeared, it will not be necessary to continue the hunt. In 
some years, especially in those succeeding a very heavy crop, it may be 
necessary to run the curculio-catcher every morning for four or five 
weeks; but, as a rule, it will not be necessary to use it oftener than two 
or three times a week during that season; and sometimes the season 
may be shortened by one half. The insects fall most readily when the 
weather is cool, and it is best, therefore, to get through the whole or- 
chard, if possible, before noon. On cloudy days, however, the insects 
may be caught all day. A smart man can attend to 300 or 400 full- 
bearing trees in six hours if the ground has been well rolled or firmed, as 
it should be before the bugging operation begins. The same treatment 
applies to the saving of peaches and rarely, also, of sour cherries. 

Varieties of the plum. 

The following varieties of European origin will be found desirable 
for growing in the northern and eastern states : Bradshaw, Imperial 
Gage, Lombard, McLaughlin, Pond, Quackenbos, Copper, Jefferson, 
Italian Prune (Fellenberg) , Shropshire, Golden Drop (Coe Golden 
Drop), Bavay or Reine Claude, Grand Duke, Monarch. 

Several of the Japanese varieties are also well adapted to growing 
in these sections, as well as in the states farther south. The trees are 
generally hardy, but they bloom early, and are likely to be injured by 
late frosts in some localities. Among the better kinds are the Red 
June, Abundance, Chabot, Burbank, and Satsuma. 

Few of the above sorts are hardy in the Northwest, and growers 
there have to rely on varieties of native species. Among these are: 
Forest Garden, Wyant, De Soto, Rollingstone, Weaver, Quaker, and 
Hawkeye. Farther south still other classes of plums have been intro- 
duced, among them being Wildgoose, Clinton, Moreman, Miner, and 
Golden Beauty. And still farther south, Transparent, Texas Belle 
(Paris Belle), Newman, Lone Star, and El Paso are grown. 

Quince. — Although not largely grown, quinces generally find a 
ready sale, and they are desirable for home use. The trees are usually 
planted about 12 feet each way, and may be trained either in a shrub or 
tree form, but it will generally be best to grow them with a short trunk. 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 



443 



They succeed best on a deep, moist, and fertile soil. They require much 
the same care as the pear. The insects and diseases by which they are 
attacked are also the same as for that fruit. Blight is particularly bad. 
The fruit is borne on short shoots of the same season, and strong head- 
ing-in of the growth in winter removes a good part of the buds from 
which the shoots arise. The Orange is the most common variety, but 
Champion, Meech (Fig. 285), and Rea are sometimes grown. 




285. Meech Quince (Meech's Prolific). 



Raspberry. — Both the red and black raspberries are essentials of a 
good garden. A few plants of each will produce a supply of berries for 
a family through six or eight weeks, provided both early and late 
varieties are planted. 

A cool situation, soil that will hold moisture without being wet, and 
thorough preparation of the ground, are the conditions necessary to 
success. The blackcap raspberries should be set 3 to 4 feet apart, the 
rows 6 or 7 feet; the red varieties 3 feet apart, the rows 5 feet apart. 
Spring setting is usually preferable. 

The shoots of raspberries sent up one season fruit and die the follow- 
ing year, as in blackberries and dewberries. 

Most of the blackcap varieties naturally throw out side branches the 
first season, and with such it is a good plan to pinch back the new canes 
as soon as they have reached a height of 2 to 3 feet, according to 
the full height of the variety. This will hasten the throwing out of 



444 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

side shoots, upon which fruit will be borne the following year. As soon 
as severe freezing weather is over in the spring, these side shoots should 
be cut back 9 to 12 inches, according to the strength of the canes and 
the number of side branches upon them. 

The same method of pruning is advisable with red varieties like 
Cuthbert, which naturally branch freely. Other sorts, like King, 
Hansell, Marlboro, Turner, and Thwack, that seldom branch, should 
not be pinched back in summer, as, even though this might induce 
them to send out shoots, the branches will be weak, and if they survive 
the winter, will produce less fruit than would the strong buds upon the 
main canes had they not been forced into growth. 




286. A rooting tip of the black raspberry. 

As soon as the crop has been gathered, and the old canes are dead, 
they should be removed, and at the same time all of the surplus new 
shoots should be cut away. From four to five good canes will be suffi- 
cient for each hill, while in rows the number may be from two to three 
in each foot. 

Pruned in this way, nearly all varieties will have stems sufficiently 
large to support themselves, but as there will be more or less breaking 
down and injury to the fruit from the bending over of the canes, many 
growers prefer to support them by means of stakes or trellises. Stakes 
may be set- in each hill, or for matted rows stout stakes 3 feet high 
are driven at intervals of 40 feet and a No. 10 galvanized wire is 
stretched along the row, to which the canes are tied. It would be a 
saving of labor if a wire is stretched either side of the row, as then no 
tying will be required. 




XXIII. Cherry currant. 



THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 



445 




If it is desired to secure new plants, the ends of the branches of the 
black varieties should be covered with soil about the middle of August, 
when the tips are seen to divide into several slender shoots, and to take 
root (Fig. 286) ; these can be taken up and planted the following spring. 
While the suckers 
that spring from 
the roots of red 
varieties (Fig. 287) 
may be used in 
propagating them, 
it will be better to 
use plants grown 
from root-cut- 
tings, as they will 

have much better 

287. Sprouting habit of red raspberry, 
roots. 

Raspberries may be bent over to the ground so that the snow will 
protect them, in severe climates. 

For red rust, pull out the plant, root and branch, and burn it. Short 
rotations — fruiting the plants only two or three years — and burning 
the old canes and trimmings, will do much to keep raspberry plantations 
healthy. Spraying will have some effect in combating anthracnose. 

Varieties of raspberries. 

Of the black sorts the following will be found desirable: Palmer, 
Conrath, Kansas, and Eureka, which ripen in the order named. In 
some sections the Gregg is still valuable, but it is somewhat lacking in 
hardiness. Ohio is a favorite variety for evaporating. Of the purple- 
cap varieties, Shaffer and Columbian generally succeed. Among the 
red varieties none are more universally successful than Cuthbert. 
King is a promising early variety, and Loudon is a valuable late kind. 
Many growers find Marlboro and Turner well worthy of cultivation, 
although rather local in their adaptations; while for home use, Golden 
Queen, a yellow Cuthbert, is much liked. 

Strawberry. — Every one may grow strawberries, yet the saying that 
strawberries will grow on any soil is misleading, although true. Some 



446 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

varieties of strawberries will grow on certain soils better than other 
varieties. What these varieties are can be determined only by an 
actual test, but it is a safe rule to choose such varieties as prove good 
in many localities. 

As to the methods of culture, so much depends on the size of the 
plot, the purpose for which the fruit is wanted, and the extent of care 
one is willing to give, that no set rule can be given for a garden in which 
but few plants are grown and extra care can be given. The grower must 
always be sure that his varieties will " fertilize "; that is, that he has 
sufficient pollen-bearing kinds to insure a crop. 

With the highest culture, good results can be obtained from the 
hill system of growing strawberries. For this the plants may be set 
in rows 3 feet apart and 1 foot in the row, or if it be worked 
both wa}4S, they may be from 2 to 2\ feet each way. In the small 
garden, where a horse cannot be used, the plants are frequently 
set 1 foot each way, arranging them in beds 
of three to five rows, with walks 2 feet wide 
between them. As fast as runners form, they 
should be removed, so that the entire vigor of 
the plant will be exerted in strengthening the 
crown. When extra fine specimen berries are 
288. Strawberry plant desired, the plant may be held above the ground 
supported by a wire by a wire frame, as shown in Fig. 288. 
rack - Or strawberries may be grown by the narrow 

matted-row system, in which the runners, before rooting, should be 
turned along the rows at a distance of 4 to 6 inches from the parent 
plant. These runners should be the first ones made by the plant and 
should not be allowed to root themselves, but " set in." This is not a 
difficult operation ; and if the runners are separated from the parent 
plant as soon as they become well established, the drain on that plant 
is not great. All other runners should be cut off as they start. The 
row should be about 12 inches wide at fruiting time (Fig. 289). Each 
plant should have sufficient feeding ground, full sunlight, and a firm 
hold in the soil. This matted-row system is perhaps as good a method, 
either in a private garden or field culture, as could be practiced. With 
a little care in hoeing, weeding, and cutting off runners, the beds seem 
to produce as large crops the second year as the first. 




THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 447 

The old way of growing a crop was to set the plants 10 to 12 inches 
apart, in rows 3 feet apart, and allow them to run and root at will, the 
results being a mass of small, crowded plants, each striving to obtain 
plant-food and none of them succeeding in getting enough. The last, 
or outside runners, having but the tips of their roots in the ground, are 
moved by the wind, heaved by the frost, or have the exposed roots 
dried out by the wind and sun. 

Ground rich in potash produces the firmest and best flavored berries. 
Excessive use of stable manure, usually rich in nitrogen, should be 
avoided, as tending to make too rank growth of foliage and berries of a 
soft texture. 




289. A narrow matted row of strawberries. 

For most purposes, strawberries should be set as early in the spring 
as the ground can be worked. The planting can be done with a trowel, 
spade, or dibble, taking care to spread the roots out as much as possible 
and to press the soil firmly about them, holding the plant so that the 
bud will be just above the surface. If the season is late and the weather 
is hot and dry, some or all of the older leaves should be removed. If 
water is used, it should be poured about the roots before the hole is 
filled and as soon as it has soaked away the remaining soil should be 
packed about the plants. During the first season the blossom stalks 
should be removed as soon as they appear, and the runners should be 
restricted to a space about 1 foot wide. Some persons prefer still 



448 MANUAL OF GARDENING 






further to reduce the number of plants, and after layering from three 
to four plants between those originally set, to remove all others. 

Strawberries are often set in August or September, but this is advis- 
able only for small patches or when the soil is in the best possible condi- 
tion and the highest culture is given. For garden culture, it may pay 
to secure potted plants (Fig. 290). These are sold by many nursery- 
men, and they may be obtained by plunging pots beneath the runners 
as soon as the fruiting season is passed. In August, the plant should 
fill the pot (which should be 3-inch or 4-inch) and the plant is ready 
for setting in the plantation. Such plants should bear a good crop 
the following spring. 

During the first season strawberries should be frequently worked,* 
rather deep at first, but as the weather be- 
comes warm and the roots fill the ground, 
tillage should be restricted to a depth of not 
more than 2 inches. The weeds should never 
be allowed to get a start, and if the season 
is dry, cultivation should be so frequent 
that the surface soil should at all times be 
loose and open, forming a dust mulch to con- 
serve the moisture. If the fall is moist and 
the plantation free from weeds, there will 
290. A potted^strawberry be j.^ occagion for CU ltivati«a after the first 

of September, until just before the ground 
freezes up, when a thorough cultivation should be given. In addition 
to the horse cultivation, the hoe should be used whenever necessary to 
loosen the soil about the plants and to destroy weeds that may start 
in the row. 

After the ground has frozen, it will be advisable to mulch the plants 
by covering the space between the rows with some waste material to 
the depth of about 2 inches. Directly over the plants a covering of 
1 inch will generally suffice. The material used should be free from 
the seeds of grass and weeds, and should be such as will remain upon 
the beds without blowing off and that will not pack down too closely 
upon the plants. Marsh hay makes an ideal mulch, but where it can- 
not be secured, straw will answer. Corn fodder makes a clean but 
rather coarse mulch, and where they can be held in place by some other 




THE GROWING OF THE FRUIT PLANTS 449 

e 

material, forest leaves do well as a mulch between the rows. In the 
spring the straw should be removed from over the plants and allowed to 
remain between the rows as a mulch, or all of it may be removed and 
the soil worked with a cultivator. 

A large crop should be produced the second season ; many persons 
think it best to renew the plantation each year, but if the plants are 
healthy and the ground free from grass and weeds, the plantation can 
often be retained for a second crop. It will be well to plow the soil 
away from the rows so as to leave but a narrow strip, and along this the 
old plants should be cut out so as to leave the new plants about 1 
foot apart. If this is done in July, the rows should fill up by winter, 
$o as to be in about the same condition as a new bed. 

Insects and diseases of the strawberry. 

The insect most commonly troublesome to the strawberry grower is 
the common June-bug, or May-beetle, the larvae of which are often 
very common in land that has been in sod. Two years should elapse 
before sod land is used for this crop. 

Cut-worms are often troublesome, but plowing the land the fall pre- 
vious to setting the plants will destroy many of them. They can 
be poisoned by sprinkling about the field clover or other green plants 
that have been soaked in Paris green water (p. 203). 

The most common fungous disease of the strawberry is leaf-blight 
or" rust," which frequently causes much injury to the foliage, and may 
result in the loss of the crop. Varieties least subject to the disease 
should be chosen for planting, and on suitable soils and well cared 
for, there need be little loss from this disease if the plantation is fre- 
quently renewed. The rust and mildew may be held in check by bor- 
deaux mixture. It is usually sufficient to spray after the blooming 
season (or at any time the first year the plants are set), in order to secure 
healthy foliage for the next year (p. 213). 

Varieties of strawberries. 

For most parts of the country, Haverland, Warfield, Bubach, and 
Gandy afford a succession and are all hardy and productive varieties. 
The first three are imperfect-flowered varieties, and some such perfect- 

2g 



450 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

flowering kinds as Lowett or Bederwood should be provided to fer- 
tilize them. Among other varieties that do well in most sections are 
Brandywine, Greenville, Clyde, and Woolverton. Parker Earle is very 
late, and is valuable for either home use or market, upon strong, moist 
soils, where it can have the best of care. Belt (William Belt) and Mar- 
shall have large, showy fruits, and do well on strong soil. 

Excelsior or Michel might be added as very early ; Aroma is grown 
very extensively in some sections; also Tennessee (Tennessee Pro- 
lific) is a very promising new sort from Tennessee. 



CHAPTER X 

THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 

A vegetable garden is admittedly a part of any home place 
that has a good rear area. A purchased vegetable is never the 
same as one taken from a man's own soil and representing his 
own effort and solicitude. 

It is essential to any satisfaction in vegetable-growing that the 
soil be rich and thoroughly subdued and fined. The plantation 
should also be so arranged that the tilling can be done with 



> r ^*rW 




291. Cultivating the backache. 

wheel tools, and, where the space will allow it, with horse tools. 
The old-time garden bed (Fig. 291) consumes time and labor, 
wastes moisture, and is more trouble and expense than it is worth. 
The rows of vegetables should be as long and continuous as 
possible, to allow of tillage with wheel tools. If it is not desired 
to grow a full row of any one vegetable, the line may be made up 
of several species, one following the other, care being taken to 
place together such kinds as have similar requirements; one 
long row, for example, might contain all the parsnips, carrots, 
and salsify. One or two long rows containing a dozen kinds of 

451 



452 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



vegetables are usually preferable to a dozen short rows, each 
with one kind of vegetable. 



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292. Tracy's plan for a kitchen-garden. 

It is well to place the permanent vegetables, as rhubarb and 
asparagus, at one side, where they will not interfere with the 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 



453 



plowing or tilling. The annual vegetables should be grown on 
different parts of the area in succeeding years, thus practicing 
something like a rotation of crops. If radish or cabbage mag- 
gots or club-root become thoroughly established in the planta- 
tion, omit for a year or more the vegetables on which they live. 
A suggestive arrange- 



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ment for a kitchen- 
garden is given in Fig. 
292. In Fig. 293 is a 
plan of a fenced garden, 
in which gates are pro- 
vided at the ends to 
allow the turning of a 
horse and cultivator 
(Webb Donnell, in 
American Gardening). 
Figure 294 shows a 
garden with continuous 
rows, but with two 
breaks running across 
the area, dividing the 
plantation into blocks. 
The area is surrounded 
with a windbreak, and 
the frames and perma- 
nent plants are at one 
side. 

It is by no means 293. A garden fence arranged to allow of horse 

necessary that the 

vegetable-garden contain only kitchen-garden products. Flow- 
ers may be dropped in here and there wherever a vacant corner 
occurs or a plant dies. Such informal and mixed gardens usually 
have a personal character that adds greatly to their interest, 
and, therefore, to their value. One is generally impressed with 



III 

f i 
I 1 

i i i \ i 



I 
II 

l! 

\ S 

!! 

I 






Mini iiiihiiihiii 



454 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



this informal character of the home-gardens in many Euro- 
pean countries, a type of planting that arises from the necessity 
of making the most of every inch of land. It was the writer's 
pleasure to look over the fence of a Bavarian peasant's garden 
and to see, on a space about 40 feet by 100 feet in area, a 




ScAUErfflFT. TO iJNC+b 

294. A family kitchen-garden. 

delightful medley of onions, pole beans, peonies, celery, balsams, 
gooseberries, coleus, cabbages, sunflowers, beets, poppies, cu- 
cumbers, morning-glories, kohl-rabi, verbenas, bush beans, 
pinks, stocks, currants, wormwood, parsley, carrots, kale, peren- 
nial phlox, nasturtiums, feverfew, lettuce, lilies ! 

Vegetables for six (by C. E. Hunn). 

A home vegetable-garden for a family of six would require, 
exclusive of potatoes, a space not over 100 by 150 feet. Be- 
ginning at one side of the garden and running the rows the 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 455 

short way (having each row 100 feet long) sowings may be 
made, as soon as the ground is in condition to work, of the 
following: 

Fifty feet each of parsnips and salsify. 

One hundred feet of onions, 25 feet of which may be potato or set 
onions, the remainder black-seed for summer and fall use. 

Fifty feet of early beets ; 50 feet of lettuce, with which radish may 
be sown to break the soil and be harvested before the lettuce needs the 
room. 

One hundred feet of early cabbage, the plants for which should 
be from a frame or purchased. Set the plants 18 inches to 2 feet apart. 

One hundred feet of early cauliflower ; culture same as for cabbage. 

Four hundred and fifty feet of peas, sown as follows : — 

100 feet of extra early. 100 feet of extra early, sown late. 

100 feet of intermediate. 50 feet of dwarf varieties. 

100 feet of late. 
If trellis or brush is not to be used, frequent sowings of the dwarfs 
will maintain a supply. 

After the soil has become warm and all danger of frost has passed, 
the tender vegetables be planted as follows : 

Corn in five rows 3 feet apart, three rows to be early and intermediate 
and two rows late. 

One hundred feet of string beans, early to late varieties. 
Vines as follows : — 
10 hills of cucumbers, 6x6 feet. 6 hills of early squash, 6x6 feet. 

20 hills of muskmelon, 6x6 feet. 10 hills of Hubbard, 6x6 feet. 

One hundred feet of okra. 

Twenty eggplants. One hundred feet (25 plants) tomatoes. 

Six large clumps of rhubarb. 

An asparagus bed 25 feet long and 3 feet wide. 

Late cabbage, cauliflower, and celery are to occupy the space made 
vacant by removing early crops of early and intermediate peas and 
string beans. 

A border on one side or end will hold all herbs, such as parsley, 
thyme, sage, hyssop, mints. 



456 MANUAL OF GARDENING 



The classes of vegetables. 

Before attempting to grow particular vegetables, it will help 
the beginner to an understanding of the subject if he recognizes 
certain cultural groups or classes, and what their main require- 
ments are. 

Root-crops — Beet, carrot, parsnip, salsify. 

The root-crops are cool-weather plants; that is, they may be 
sown very early, even before light frosts disappear; and the 
winter kinds grow very late in the fall, or may be left in the 
ground till most other crops are harvested. They are not often 
transplanted. 

Loose and deep soil, free from clods, is required to grow 
straight and well-developed roots. The land must also be 
perfectly drained, not only to remove superfluous moisture, 
but to provide a deep and friable soil. Subsoiling is useful 
in hard lands. A large admixture of sand is generally desir- 
able, provided the soil is not likely to overheat in sunny 
weather. 

To keep roots fresh in the cellar, pack them in barrels, boxes, 
or bins of sand which is just naturally moist, allowing each root 
to come wholly or partly in contact with the sand. The best 
material in which to pack them is sphagnum moss, the same 
that nurserymen use in packing trees for shipment, and which 
may be obtained in bogs in many parts of the country. In 
either sand or sphagnum, the roots will not shrivel; but if the 
cellar is warm, they may start to grow. Roots can also be 
buried, after the manner of potatoes. Page 158. 

Alliaceous group — Onion, leek, garlic. 

A group of very hardy cool-weather plants, demanding un- 
usually careful preparation of the surface soil to receive the 
seeds and to set the young plants going. They withstand frost 
and cool weather, and may be sown very early. Seeds are 



! 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 457 

sown directly where the plants are to stand. For early onions, 
however, the special practice has recently arisen of transplant- 
ing from seedbeds. 

Brassicaceous group — Cabbage, kale, cauliflower. 

These are cool-weather crops, all of them withstanding con- 
siderable frost. The cabbages and kales are often started in 
fall in the middle and southern latitudes, and are harvested 
before hot weather arrives. 

In the northern states, these plants will all do best when 
started early in hotbed, frame, or greenhouse, — from the last 
of February to April — and transplanted to the open ground 
May first to June first, partly because their season of growth 
may be long and partly to enable them to escape the heat of 
midsummer. Still, some persons are successful in growing late 
cabbage, kale, and cauliflower, by sowing the seeds in hills and in 
the open ground where the plants are to mature. It is best to 
transplant the young plantlets twice, first from the seed-bed to 
boxes, or frames, about the time the second set of true leaves 
appears, placing the plants 24 inches apart each way, and 
transplanting again to the open ground in rows 4 to 5 feet 
apart, with plants 2 to 4 feet apart in the row. If the plants 
are started under cover, they should be hardened off by ex- 
posure to light and air during 
the warmer hours of several 
days preceding the final trans- 
planting. 

The most serious enemy of 
cabbage-like plants is the root- 
maggot. See discussion of this 
insect on pp. 187, 201. 

The cabbage-worm (larva of 295 - The white butterfly that lays the 

, , i • , i < i n i • eggs f° r the cabbage-worm. 

the white butterfly shown m 

Fig. 295) can be dispatched with pyrethrum or kerosene 




458 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

emulsion. It must be treated very early, before the worm 
gets far into the head (p. 200). 

The club-root or stump-root is a fungous disease for which 
there is no good remedy. Use new land if the disease is present 
(p.208). 

Solanaceous group — Tomato, egg-plant, red pepper. 

These are warm-weather plants, very impatient of frost. 
They are all natives of southern zones, and have not yet become 
so far acclimatized in the North as not to need the benefit of 
our longest seasons. 

Plants should be started early, under glass. They should be 
"pricked off," when the second leaves appear, 3 or 4 inches 
apart, into flats or boxes. These boxes should be kept in a 
coldframe, to which an abundance of light and air is admitted 
on warm, sunny days, in order to harden them off. After all 
danger of frost is past, and the garden soil is well warmed/ the 
plants may be finally transplanted. 

If the ground is too rich, these plants are likely to grow too 
late in the northern seasons. 

Cucurbitaceous group — Cucumber, melon, squash, pumpkin. 

All the members of this group are very tender to frost, and they 
must not be planted till the season is thoroughly open and 
settled. The plants are not transplanted, unless they are trans- 
ferred from boxes or pots. 

Seeds must be planted somewhat shallow from early spring 
to midsummer. For the earliest cucumbers and melons, seeds 
are planted in frames. That is, each hill is inclosed by a port- 
able box frame about 3 feet square and usually having a 
movable sash cover. The cover is raised or removed in warm 
days, and the frame bodily taken away when all danger of frost 
is past. In field culture, seeds are planted an inch deep, four 
to six in a hill, with hills 4 by 6 feet apart, these distances 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 459 

being varied slightly, according to location and variety. Good 
cucumbers are sometimes grown in hills surrounding a barrel 
in which manure is placed to be leached out by successive water- 
ings. 

The omnipresent enemies of all the cucurbitaceous crops are 
the little cucumber beetle and the large black "stink bug." 
Ashes, lime, or tobacco dust occasionally seem to show some 
efficiency in preventing the ravages of these insects, but the only 
reasonably sure immunity is in the use of covers over the hills 
(Fig. 229) and in hand-picking (p. 202). Covers may also 
be made by stretching mosquito netting over arcs of barrel 
hoops or bent wires. If by some such means the plants are 
kept insect-free till they outgrow the protection, they will 
usually escape serious damage from insects thereafter. It is 
well to plant trap or decoy hills of cucumbers, squashes, or 
melons in advance of the regular planting, on which the bugs 
may be harvested. 

Leguminous crops — Peas and beans. 

Two cultural groups are included in the legumes, — the bean 
group (including all field, garden, and kidney beans, and the 
cowpea) comprising warm- weather plants; the pea group 
(including field and garden pea, the Windsor or Broad bean) 
comprising cool-weather plants. The former are quickly sus- 
ceptible to frost and should be planted only after the weather is 
settled. The latter are among the earliest vegetables to be 
planted. The leguminous crops are not transplanted, the seed 
being placed where the plants are to grow. 

Salad plants and pot-herbs ("greens"). 

These plants are all grown for their tender, fresh, succulent 
leaves, and therefore every reasonable effort should be made to 
secure quick and continuous foliage growth. It is manifestly 
expedient that they be grown in warm, mellow ground, well 
cultivated and copiously watered. Such small plants as cress, 



460 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

corn salad, and parsley'may be grown in small beds, or even in 
boxes or pots; but in a garden where space is not too scant, they 
may be more conveniently managed in rows, like peas or beets. 
Nearly all the salad plants may be sown in the spring, and from 
time to time throughout the summer for succession. The group 
is culturally not homogeneous, inasmuch as some of the plants 
need special treatment; but most of them are cool- weather 
subjects. 

Sweet-herbs. 

The herb garden should find a place on all amateurs' grounds. 
Sweet-herbs may sometimes be made profitable by disposing of 
the surplus to the green grocer and the druggist. The latter 
will often buy all that the housewife wishes to dispose of, 
as the general supply of medicinal herbs is grown by specialists, 
and goes into the hands of the wholesaler and is often old when 
received by the local dealer. 

The seedsmen's catalogues mention upwards of forty different 
herbs, medicinal and culinary. The majority of them are peren- 
nial, and will grow for many years if well taken care of. How- 
ever, it is better to resow them every three or four years. Beds 
4 feet square of each of the herbs will supply an ordinary 
family. 

The perennial sweet-herbs may be propagated by division, 
although they are usually grown from seeds. The second year 
— and sometimes even the first year — the plants are strong 
enough for cutting. The common perennial sweet-herbs are: 
Sage, lavender, peppermint, spearmint, hyssop, thyme, mar- 
joram, balm, catnip, rosemary, horehound, fennel, lovage, 
winter savory, tansy, wormwood, costmary. 

The commoner annual species (or those that are treated 
as annuals) are: Anise, sweet basil, summer savory, coriander, 
pennyroyal, caraway (biennial), clary (biennial), dill (biennial), 
sweet marjoram (biennial). 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 461 

The culture of the leading vegetables. 

Having now obtained a view of ,the layout of the vegetable- 
garden and a good conception of the leading cultural groups, 
we may proceed with a discussion of the different kinds of 
vegetables themselves. Good experience is better than book 
advice ; but the person who consults a book is the one who 
lacks experience. Any printed directions are necessarily im- 
perfect, and they may not be adaptable to the particular con- 
ditions under which the amateur works ; but they ought to set 
him in the right direction so that he may more easily find his 
way. Seedsmen's catalogues often contain much useful and 
reliable advice of this kind. 

Asparagus. — The best of all early spring vegetables; a hardy her- 
baceous perennial, grown for the soft edible shoots that spring from 
the crown. 

The culture of asparagus has been simplified in the past few years, 
and at present the knowledge required successfully to plant and grow 
a good supply need not be that of a professional. The old method of 
excavating to the depth of 3 feet or more, throwing in from 4 to 6 inches 
of broken stone or bricks for drainage, then filling to within 16 to 18 
inches of the surface with well-rotted manure, with 6 inches of soil 
upon which to set the roots, has given place to the simple practice 
of plowing or digging a trench from 14 to 16 inches deep, spreading 
well-rotted manure in the bottom to the depth of 3 or 4 inches; when 
well trodden down covering the manure with 3 or 4 inches of good gar- 
den soil, then setting the plants, with the roots well spread out, cover- 
ing carefully with soil to the level of the garden, and firming the soil 
with the feet. This will leave the crowns of the plants from 4 to 
5 inches below the surface. 

In stubborn, heavy soil the best method to pursue in making a 
permanent bed is to throw out all the dirt from the trench and replace 
with good, fibrous loam. 

In setting, 1 -year-old plants will prove more satisfactory than 
older ones, being less liable to suffer from injury to the root system than 
those that have made a larger growth. Two years after setting the 



462 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 




crop may be cut somewhat, but not sooner if a lasting bed is desired, 
as the effort to replace the stalks has a tendency to weaken the plant 

unless the roots are well estab- 
lished. The cutting should 
cease in June or early July, or 
the roots may be much weak- 
ened. In cutting, care should 
be taken to insert the knife 
vertically, so that adjoining 
crowns will not be injured (Fig. 
296). 

The yearly treatment of an 
asparagus bed consists of clean- 
ing off tops and weeds in the 
fall and adding a dressing of 
well-rotted manure to the 
depth of 3 or 4 inches, this ma- 
nure to be lightly forked into the 
bed the following spring; or the tops may be allowed to stand for 
winter protection and the mulch left off. A top-dressing of nitrate of 
soda, at the rate of 200 pounds per acre, is often beneficial as a spring 
stimulant, particularly in the case of an old bed. Good results will also 
follow an application of bone meal or superphosphate at the rate of 
some 300 to 500 pounds per acre. The practice of sowing salt on an as- 
paragus bed is almost universal; yet b$ds that have never received a 
pound of salt are found to be as productive as those having received an 
annual dressing. Nevertheless, a salt dressing is recommended. Two 
rows of asparagus 25 feet long and 3 feet apart should supply a large 
family with an abundance throughout the season, and if well taken care 
of, will last a number of years. 

Conover Colossal is the variety most generally grown, and is per- 
haps the most satisfactory sort. Palmetto, a variety originating at 
the South, is also very popular. 



296. Good (A) and poor (B) modes of 
inserting the knife to cut asparagus. 
Some careful growers pull or break the 
shoots rather than cut them. 



Artichoke. — The artichoke of literature is a tall, coarse perennial 
of the thistle tribe, producing edible flower-heads. Cardoon is a re- 
lated plant. 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 463 

The fleshy scales of the head and the soft "bottom" of the head 
are the parts used. The young suckers or shoots may also be tied 
together and blanched, using them like asparagus or Swiss chard. But 
few of these plants would be needed for a family, as they produce a 
number of flower-heads to a plant and a quantity of suckers. The 
plants should be set from 2 to 3 feet apart in the row, the rows being 
3 feet apart. This vegetable is not quite hardy in the North, but a 
covering of leaves or barnyard litter to the depth of a foot will protect it 
well. The plant is perennial, but the best yield comes from young plants. 
If the heads are allowed to ripen, they reduce the vitality of the plant. 

Artichokes have never become so popular in this country as to have 
produced a long list of varieties. Large Green Globe is most commonly 
offered by seedsmen. Edible heads should be secured the second year 
from seed. Seedlings are likely to vary greatly, and if one is fond of 
artichokes, he would do better to propagate by suckers from the best 
plants. 

These plants make no mean decorative subjects, either massed or 
in a mixed border, and from the rarity of their culture are always 
objects of interest. 

Artichoke, Jerusalem, is a wholly different plant from the above, 
although it is commonly known as " artichoke' ' in this country. It 
is a species of sunflower that produces potato-like tubers. These tubers 
may be used in lieu of potatoes. They are very palatable to hogs; 
and when the plant becomes a weed, — as it often does, — it may be 
exterminated by turning the hogs into the field. Hardy, and will grow 
anywhere. 

Bean. — Every garden grows beans of one kind or another. Under 
this general name, many kinds of plants are cultivated. They are all 
tender, and the seeds, therefore, should not be planted until the 
weather is thoroughly settled; and the soil should be warm and loose. 
They are all annuals in northern countries, or treated as such. 

The bean plants may be classified in various ways. In respect to 
stature, they may be thrown into three general categories; viz. the 
pole or climbing beans, the bush beans, and the strict-growing or up- 
right beans (as the Broad or Windsor bean). 



464 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

In respect to their uses, beans again may be divided into three cate- 
gories; viz. those used as string or snap beans, the entire pod being 
eaten; those that are used as shell beans, the full-size but immature 
beans being shelled from the pod and cooked; dry beans, or those 
eaten in their dry or winter condition. The same variety of bean 
may be used for all of these three purposes at different stages of its de- 
velopment; but as a matter of fact, there are varieties better for one 
purpose than the other. 

Again, beans may be classified in respect to their species. Those 
species that are best known are as follows: (1) Common bean, or 
Phdseolus vulgaris, of which there are both tall and bush forms. All 
the common snap and string beans belong here, as also the Speckled 
Cranberry types of pole beans, and the common field beans. (2) The 
Lima beans, or Phaseolus lunatus. The larger part of these are pole 
beans, but lately dwarf or bush varieties have appeared. (3) The 
Scarlet Runner, Phaseolus multiflorus, of which the Scarlet Runner and 
White Dutch Runner are familiar examples. The Scarlet Runner is 
usually grown as an ornamental vine, and it is perennial in warm coun- 
tries, but the seeds are edible as shelled beans. The White Dutch 
Runner is oftener cultivated for food. (4) The Yard-Long,- or Asparagus 
bean, Dolichos sesquipedalis, which produces long and weak vines and 
very long, slender pods. The green pods are eaten, and also the shelled 
beans. The French Yard-Long is the only variety of this type that is 
commonly known in this country. This type of bean is popular in the 
Orient. (5) The Broad beans, of which the Windsor is the common 
type. These are much grown in the Old World for stock feed, and 
they are sometimes used for human food. They grow to one strict, 
central, stiff stalk, to a height of 2 to 4 or 5 feet, and they are 
very unlike other kinds of beans in appearance. In this country, they 
are very little grown on account of our hot and dry summers. In Can- 
ada they are somewhat raised, and are sometimes used in the making 
of silage. (6) The cowpea, which is really a bean (species of Vigna), 
much grown in the South for hay and green-manuring, is also a very 
good table vegetable and one that is destined to increase in popularity 
for domestic use. 

The culture of the bean, while of the easiest, often proves a failure 
as far as the first crop is concerned, from planting the seed before the 






THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 465 

ground has become warm and dry. No vegetable seed will decay 
quicker than beans, and the delay caused by waiting for the soil to 
become warm and free from excessive moisture will be more than 
made up by the rapidity of growth when finally they are planted. 
Beans will grow on most any land, but the best results may be se- 
cured by having the soil well enriched and in good physical 
condition. 

From the 5th to the 10th of May in the latitude of central New York, 
it will be safe to plant beans for an early crop. The beans may be 
dropped 2 inches deep in shallow drills, the seeds to lie 3 inches apart. 
Cover to the surface of the soil, and if the ground be dry, firm it with 
the foot or the back of the hoe. For the bush varieties, allow 2 feet 
between the drill-rows, but for the dwarf Limas 2\ feet is better. 
Pole Limas are usually planted in hills 2 to 3 feet apart in the rows. 
Dwarf Limas may be sown thinly in drills. 

A large number of the varieties of both the green-podded and the 
wax-podded beans are used almost exclusively as snap beans, to be 
eaten with the pod while tender. The various strains of the Black 
Wax are the most popular string beans. The pole or running beans 
are used either green or dried, and the Limas, both tall and dwarf, are 
well known for their superior flavor either as shelled or dry beans. 
The old-fashioned Cranberry or Horticultural Lima type (a pole form 
of Phaseolus vulgaris) is probably the best shell bean, but the trouble 
of poling makes it unpopular. Dwarf Limas are much more desirable 
for small gardens than the pole varieties, as they may be planted much 
closer, the bother of procuring poles or twine is avoided, and the 
garden will have a more sightly appearance. Both the dwarf Limas 
and pole Limas require a longer season in which to mature than the 
bush beans, and only one planting is usually made. 

The ordinary bush beans may be planted at intervals of two weeks 
from the first planting until the 10th of August. Each planting may 
be made on ground previously occupied by some early-maturing crop. 
Thus, the first to third plantings may be on ground from which has 
been harvested a crop of spinach, early radish, or lettuce ; after that, 
on ground where early peas have been grown; and the later sowings 
where beets or early potatoes have grown. String beans for canning 
are usually taken from the last crop. 
2h 



466 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



One quart of seed will plant 100 feet of drill of the bush beans; or 
1 quart of Limas will plant 100 hills. 

Limas are the richest of beans, but they often fail to mature in the 
northern states. The land should not be very strong in nitrogen (or 
stable manure), else the plants will run too much to vine and be too 
late. Choose a fertile sandy or gravelly soil with warm exposure, 
use some soluble commercial fertilizer to start them off, and give them 
the best of culture. Aim to have the pods set before the droughts of 
midsummer come. Good trellises for beans are made by wool twine 
stretched between two horizontal wires, one of which is drawn a foot 
above the ground and the other 6 or 7 feet high. 

Bean plants are not troubled by insects to any extent, but they are 
sometimes attacked by blight. When this occurs, do not plant the 
same ground to beans again for a year or two. 



Beet. — This vegetable is 




297. 



V 

\ 
Bastian turnip beet. 



grown for its thick root, and for its 
herbage (used as "greens"); and 
ornamental-leaved varieties are 
sometimes planted in flower-gardens. 
Being one of the hardiest of spring 
vegetables, the seed may be sown as 
early in the spring as the ground can 
be worked. A light, sandy soil is the 
best on which to grow beets to per- 
fection, but any well-tilled garden 
land will raise satisfactory crops. On 
heavy ground the turnip beet gives 
the best results, as the growth is 
nearly all at or above the surface. 
The long varieties, having tapering 
roots running deep into the soil, are 
liable to be misshapen unless the 
physical condition of the soil is such 
that the roots meet with little ob- 
struction. A succession of sowings 
should be made, at intervals of two 
to three weeks, until late summer, as 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 467 

the beets are much more desirable in their young stage than when 
they have become old and woody. The mangel-wurzel and the sugar- 
beet are usually grown as a field crop, and will not enter into the 
calculations of the home garden. 

In order to hasten the season of the extra-early crop of beets, the 
seeds may be sown in boxes or in the soil of a hotbed in February or 
March, transplanting the small plants to the open ground at the time 
the first sowing of seed is made. As the flat or turnip-rooted varieties 
grow at the surface of the ground, the seed may be sown thickly, and 
as the more advanced roots are large enough to use they may be 
pulled, Jeaving room for the later ones to develop, thus growing a 
large quantity in a small area and having a long season of small beets 
from one sowing. 

For winter use the late July-sown seed will give the best roots, grow- 
ing through the cool months of the fall to a medium size and remain- 
ing firm without being tough or stringy. These may be dug after 
light frosts and before any severe cold weather, and stored in barrels 
or boxes in the cellar, using enough dry dirt to fill spaces between the 
roots and cover them to the depth of 6 inches. These roots, thus 
packed in a cool cellar, will be fit to use through the entire winter 
months. When it can be had, florists' or sphagnum moss is an excel- 
lent medium in which to pack roots for winter. 

The early round or turnip varieties (Fig. 297) are best for early and 
summer use. The long blood beets maybe used for storing, but these 
require a longer season of growth. 

Broccoli is almost identical with the cauliflower, except that it 
usually requires a longer season and matures in the fall. It is grown 
more generally in Europe than in this country. The special merit 
of broccoli is its adaptability for late summer planting and its rapid 
growth in the late season. It is said that a large proportion of broccoli 
is used in the manufacture of pickles. The culture is the same as for 
cauliflower, — deep, moist soil well enriched, cool weather, and the 
destruction of the cabbage worm. 

Brussels sprouts. — The plant is grown for the buttons or sprouts 
(miniature cabbage heads) that grow thickly along the stem (Fig. 298). 



468 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



It should be more generally known, as it is one of the choicest of 

the cabbage family, and may be had 
at its best after the season for cauli- 
flower has passed. It is the better for 
being touched by the fall frosts. The 
buttons should be cut off rather than 
broken. The very small hard " sprouts " 
or buttons are the best. The culture 
is essentially the same as for late cab- 
bage or broccoli. One ounce will sow 
100 feet of drill, or make upward of 
2000 plants. Set plants in field 2 to 3 
feet apart, or dwarf varieties closer. 
They require the entire season in which 
298. Brussels sprouts. to grow. 




Cabbage. — The cabbage is now so extensively grown as a field crop, 
from which the market is supplied, and the plants require so much 
room that many home-gardeners incline to give up its culture; but 
the early varieties, at least, should be grown at home. 

For an early crop in the North, the plants must be started either in 
February or early March, or the previous September and wintered over 
in coldframes. This latter method was once a common practice by 
gardeners near large cities, but the building of greenhouses to replace 
the many hotbeds of the market-gardener has changed the practice in 
many localities, and now most of the early cabbages in the North are 
grown from seed sown in January, February, or March. The plants are 
hardened off in March and early April and planted out as early as pos- 
sible. The private grower, or one with a small garden, may often 
procure his early plants from the market-gardener much cheaper 
than he can grow them, as usually only a limited number of early 
cabbage plants are wanted; but for the midseason and main crop, the 
seed may be sown in May or June in a seed-bed, setting the plants in 
July. 

The seed-bed should be made mellow and rich. A good border will 
do. The seed is sown preferably in rows, thus allowing thinning of the 
plants and the pulling of any weeds that germinate. The young plants 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 469 

will well repay attention to watering and thinning. The rows should 
be 3 or 4 inches apart. When the plants are large enough to trans- 
plant, they may be planted where early vegetables have been grown. 
Set the plants from 18 to 24 inches apart in the row, the rows being 
3 feet apart for the medium-growing kinds. One ounce of seed will 
furnish about 2000 plants. 

All cabbages require deep and rich soil, and one that holds moisture 
well. Regular cultivation should be given so that moisture may be 
saved and the growth be continuous. 

For early planting, the number of varieties is limited to three or 
four. For an intermediate crop the list is more extended, and the late 
varieties are very numerous. The early list is headed by the Jersey 
Wakefield, a variety that heads very quickly, and, although not one 
of the solid kinds, is generally grown. The Early York and Winnig- 
stadt are good varieties to follow it. The latter especially is solid and 
of very good quality. For the midseason, the Succession and All Season 
are of the best, and for the winter supply the Drumhead, Danish Ball, 
and Flat Dutch types are leaders. One of the best of the cabbages 
for table use is seldom seen in the garden — ■ the Savoy cabbage. It is 
a type with netted leaves, making a large, low-growing head, the center 
of which is very solid and of excellent flavor, especially late in the fall, 
when the heads have had a slight touch of frost. Savoy should be 
grown in every private garden- 

The best remedy for the cabbage worm is to kill the first brood on 
the very young plants with Paris green. After the plants begin to 
head, pyrethrum, kerosene emulsion, or salt water may be used. On 
a small area, hand-picking may be recommended (p. 200). 

The maggot is the most serious cabbage pest. After studying the 
seventy odd remedies proposed, Slingerland concludes that six are effi- 
cient and practicable: growing the young plants in closely covered 
frames; tarred paper cards placed snugly about the base of the plants 
to keep the fly away; rubbing the eggs from the base of the plant; 
hand-picking of the maggots; treating the plants with emulsion of 
carbolic acid; treating them with carbon bisulfide. The insecticidal 
materials are injected or poured into the soil about the base of the 
plant (pp. 187, 201). 

The club-root, which causes the roots to become greatly thickened 



470 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



and distorted, is difficult to manage if cabbages or allied plants are 
grown continuously on land in which diseased plants have been raised. 
Changing the location of the cabbage or cauliflower patch is the best 
procedure. If very different crops, as corn, potatoes, peas, tomatoes, 
are grown on the land, the disease will be starved out in two or 
three years (p. 208). 

There are many ways of storing cabbages for winter and spring use, 
none of which are uniformly successful. The general subject is dis- 
cussed on p. 158. On this point T. 
Greiner writes as follows: "I have 
heretofore piled a lot of cabbages cut 
from the stump in a conical heap in 
the field, and covered them with clusters 
of the outer leaves cut off with a piece 
of the stump. The leaves are carefully 
placed over the heap in shingle fashion, 
so as to shed water. Cabbages thus 
piled and covered may be left out until 
real winter weather sets in. But I find 
that slugs and earthworms frequently 
infest the cabbages thus stored, and do 
a good deal of damage. It might be 
well to place a solid floor of lime or salt 
upon the ground, and then pack the 
cabbages upon this. If to be left out after severe freezing has set in, 
one should put additional covering, such as straw, corn-stalks or marsh 
hay, over the whole heap." Mr. Burpee's little book, 'Cabbage and 
Cauliflower for Profit/ written by J. M. Lupton, a prominent cabbage- 
grower, suggests the following plan for early winter sales : " Take the 
cabbages up with the roots on, and store in well- ventilated cellars, 
where they will keep till mid- winter. Or stack them in some sheltered 
position about the barn, placing one above the other in tiers, with the 
roots inside, and covering deeply with seaweed ; or if this cannot be 
obtained, something like cornstalks may be used to keep them from 
the weather as much as possible (Fig. 299). When thus stored, they 
may be obtained any time during the winter when prices are 
favorable. 




299. 



A method of storing cab- 
bages. 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 



471 



the carrot 



Carrot. — While essentially a farm crop in this country 
is nevertheless a most acceptable garden vege- 
table. It is hardy and easily grown. The extra- 
early varieties may be forced in a hotbed, or 
seed may be sown as soon as the ground is fit 
to work in the spring. The stump-rooted, or 
half-long varieties (Fig. 300), are sown for the 
general garden crop. 

Well-enriched, mellow loam, deeply dug or 
plowed, is best suited to the requirements of 
carrots. The seed for the main crop may be 
sown as late as July 1. Sow thickly, thinning 
to 3 to 4 inches in the row. The rows, if in a 
garden that is hand-worked, may be 12 inches 
apart. If the cultivation is performed with a 
horse, the rows should be from 2 to 3 feet apart. 
One ounce will sow 100 feet of drill. 



Cauliflower. — This is the choicest of all 
vegetables of the cabbage group, and its culture 
is much the most difficult. While the special 
requirements are few, they must be fully met if 
good results are to be expected. 

The general culture of cauliflower is much like that of cabbage, 
except that the cauliflower, being more tender, should be more thor- 
oughly hardened off before setting out, the heads must be protected 
from hot suns, the plants must never suffer for moisture, and the 
greatest care must be taken to secure only highly bred seeds. 

It is essential that the plants be set out as early as possible, as the 
warm weather of June causes them to make imperfect heads unless the 
soil is filled with moisture. No garden crop will so well repay the cost 
and time of thorough irrigation, either by running the water between 
the rows or applying it directly to the plants. When it is impossible 
to furnish water and there is danger of losing the soil moisture, it is a 
good plan to mulch heavily with straw or some other substance. This 
mulch, if put on just after a heavy rain, will hold the moisture for a 
long time. Cauliflower prospers best in a cool climate. 




300. A half-long 
carrot. 



472 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 





When the heads begin to form, the outside leaves may be brought 
together and tied above the head, excluding the direct sunshine and 

keeping the head white and 
tender. Fig. 301 shows a 
good head. 

No vegetable will respond 
more quickly to good culture 
and well-manured soil than 
the cauliflower, and none will 
prove such an utter failure 
when neglected. It is im- 
perative that care be taken to 
301. Cauliflower head with leaves trimmed destroy all the cabbage worms 
off - before the leaves are tied in, 

as after that it will be impossible to see or reach them. From 1000 to 
1500 plants may be grown from 1 ounce of seed. Good cauliflower seed 
is very expensive. 

For winter crop, seeds may be started in June or July, as for late 
cabbage. 

Erfurt, Snowball, and Paris are popular early varieties. Nonpareil 
and Algiers are good late kinds. 

Celeriac. — A form of the celery plant in ^C/ 7 
which the tuberous root is the edible part 
(Fig. 302). The tuber has the celery flavor 
in a pronounced degree, and is used for 
flavoring soups and for celery salad. It may 
be served raw, sliced in vinegar and oil, or 
boiled. 

The culture is the same as given for celery, 
except that no earthing or blanching is re- 
quired. About an equal number of plants are 
obtained from the same weight of seed as from 
celery seed. Celeriac is extensively used 
abroad, but, unfortunately, little known in 302. Celeriac or turnip- 
America. rooted celery. 

Celery. — Although celery has now become a staple vegetable with all 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 473 

classes of people, the home-gardener is likely not to attempt its culture; 
yet it is not difficult to raise in small quantities in most any good 
garden land. While the commercial celery is largely grown on re- 
claimed swamp lands, such areas are not at all essential to its cultiva- 
tion. 

The self -blanching varieties have simplified the culture of celery so 
that the amateur, as well as the expert, may have a good supply at 
least six months of the year. The so-called new culture, which con- 
sists of setting the plants close together and causing them to shade each 
other, can be recommended for the garden when a supply of well-rotted 
manure is to had, and when any amount of water is available. This 
method is as follows : Fork or spade, into the soil a large quantity of 
manure to the depth of 10 to 12 inches; pulverize the soil until 
the ground for the depth of 4 to 6 inches is in very fine condition. 
Then set the plants in rows 10 inches apart and the plants but 5 or 6 
inches apart in the rows. It will be seen that plants set as close as 
this will soon fill the soil with a mass of roots and must have large 
amounts of plant-food, as well as a large quantity of water; and the 
making of such a bed can be recommended only to those who can 
supply these needs. 

The common practice in home gardens is to plow or dig a shallow 
trench, setting the plants in the bottom and hoeing in the soil as the 
plants grow. The distance apart of the rows and plants will depend 
on the varieties. For the dwarf varieties, such as White Plume, Golden 
Self-blanching, and others of this type, the rows may be as close as 
3 feet and the plants 6 inches in the rows. For the large-growing 
varieties, as Kalamazoo, Giant Pascal, and, in fact, most of the late 
varieties, the rows may be 4J to 5 feet apart and the plants 7 or 8 
inches in the row. 

The seed for an early crop should be sown in February or early in 
March in shallow boxes, which may be placed in a hotbed or sunny 
window, or sown directly in the soil of a hotbed. Cover the seeds 
thinly and press the soil firmly over them. When the seedling plants 
are about 1 inch high, they should be transplanted to other boxes 
or hotbeds, setting the plants 1 inch apart in rows 3 inches apart. 
At this transplanting, as with the following ones, the tall leaves should 
be cut or pinched off, leaving only the upright growth, as with the ut- 



474 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

most care it is almost impossible to prevent the outside leafstalks from 
wilting down and dying. The roots should also be trimmed back at 
each transplanting in order to increase the feeding roots. The plants 
should be set as deep as possible, care being taken, however, not to 
allow the heart of the plant to be covered up. The varieties usually 
grown for an early crop are the so-called self-blanching varieties. They 
may be made fit for the table with much less labor than the late crop , 
the shade required to blanch the stalks being much less. When only a 
few short rows are grown in a private garden, screens of lath may be 
made by driving stakes on each side of the row and tacking lath on, 
leaving spaces of an inch or more for the light to enter; or each head 
may be wrapped in paper, or a tile drain pipe may be set over the plant. 
In fact, any material that will exclude the light will render the stalks 
white and brittle. 

The seed for the main or fall crop should be sown in April or early 
May in a seed-bed prepared by forking short well-rotted manure into a 
fine soil, sowing the seed thinly in rows 8 or 10 inches apart, covering 
the seed lightly and firming over the seed with the feet, hoe, or back of a 
spade. This seed-bed should be kept moist at all times until the seed 
germinates, either by close attention to watering or by a lath screen. 
The use of a piece of cloth laid directly on the soil, and the bed wet 
through the cloth, is often recommended, and if the cloth is always wet 
and taken off the bed as soon as the seed sprouts, it may be used. After 
the young plants have grown to the height of 1 or 2 inches they 
must be thinned out, leaving the plants so that they do not touch each 
other, and transplanting those thinned — if wanted — to other ground 
prepared in the same manner as the seed-bed. All these plants may be 
sheared or cut back to induce stockiness. 

An ounce of seed will furnish about three thousand plants. 

If in a private garden, the ground on which the fall crop is usually 
set will likely be that from which a crop of some early vegetable has 
been taken. This land should be again well enriched with fine, well- 
rotted manure, to which maybe added a liberal quantity of wood ashes. 
If the manure or ashes is not easily obtained, a small amount may 
be used by plowing or digging out a furrow 8 or 12 inches deep, 
scattering the manure and ashes in the bottom of the trench and filling 
it up almost level with the surface. The plants should be set about 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 



475 




303 




Storing celery in 
a trench in the 
field. 



the middle of July, preferably just before a rain. 

The plant bed should have a thorough soaking 

shortly before the plants are lifted, and each 

plant be trimmed, both top and root, before set- 
ting. The plants should be set from 5 to 6 inches 

apart in the rows and the earth well firmed 

around each one. 

The after-cultivation consists in thorough 

tillage until the time of " handling " or earthing 

up the plants. This process of handling is 

accomplished by drawing up the earth with one 

hand while 
holding the 
plant with the 

other, packing the soil well around 
the stalks. This process may be 
continued until only the leaves are 
to be seen. For the private grower, 
it is much easier to blanch the celery 
with boards or paper, or if the 

celery is not wanted until winter, the plants may be dug up, packed 

closely in boxes, covering the roots with soil, 

and placed in a dark, cool cellar, where the 

stalks will blanch themselves. In this way 

celery may be stored in boxes in the house 

cellar. Put earth in the bottom of a deep 

box, and plant the celery in it. 

Celery is sometimes stored in trenches in the 

open (Fig. 303), the roots being transplanted 

to such places in late fall. The plants are set 

close together and the trenches are covered 

with boards. A wider trench or pit may be 

made (Fig. 304) and covered with a shed roof. 

Chard, or Swiss chard, is a development of 
the beet species characterized by large suc- 
culent leafstalks instead of enlarged roots 305. Swiss chard. 



304. A celery pit. 




476 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

(Fig. 305). The leaves are very tender and make "greens" much like 
young beets. They are cultivated exactly like beets. Only one variety 
is offered by most seedsmen in this country, though in France and 
Germany several varieties are grown. 

Chicory is grown for two purposes, — for the roots and for the 
herbage. " Barbe de capucin " is a salad made from young shoots of 
chicory. 

The Magdeburg chicory is the variety usually spoken of, it being 
the one most extensively grown. The roots of this, after being 
ground and roasted, are used either as a substitute or an adulterant 
for coffee. 

The Witloof, a form of chicory, is used as a salad, or boiled and 
served in the same manner as cauliflower. The plants should be 
thinned to 6 inches. In the latter part of summer they should be 
banked up like celery, and the leaves used after becoming white and 
tender. This and the common wild chicory are often dug in the fall, 
the leaves cut off, the roots packed in sand in a cellar and watered until 
a new growth of leaves starts. These leaves grow rapidly and are very 
tender, making a fine salad vegetable. One packet of seed of the Wit- 
loof will furnish plants enough for a large family. 

Chervil. — The chervil is grown in two forms, — for the leaves, and 
for the tuberous roots. 

The curled chervil is a good addition to the list of garnishing 
and seasoning vegetables. Sow seeds and cultivate the same as 
parsley. 

The tuberous chervil resembles a short carrot or parnsip. It is 
much esteemed in France and Germany. The tubers have somewhat the 
flavor of a sweet potato, perhaps a little sweeter. They are perfectly 
hardy, and, like the parsnip, the better for frosts. The seed may be 
sown in September or October, as it does not keep well; or as soon 
as the ground is fit to work in the spring, it being slow to germinate 
after the weather becomes hot and dry. One packet of seed will give 
all the plants necessary for a family. 

Collards. — This is a name given to a kind of kale, used when young 
as greens; also to young cabbages used in the same way. 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 477 

The seed of any early cabbage may be sown thickly in rows 18 inches 
apart, from early spring to late fall. The plants are cut off when 6 
or 8 inches high and boiled as are other greens. 

The kale, or Georgia collards, is grown in the South, where cabbages 
fail to head. It grows to the height of 2 to 6 feet, furnishing a 
large quantity of leaves. The young leaves and tufts that arise as the 
old leaves are pulled off make excellent greens. 

Cives. — A small perennial of the onion family, used for flavoring. 

It is propagated by division of the root. It may be planted in a per- 
manent place in the border, and, being completely hardy, will remain for 
years. The leaves are the parts used, as the roots are very rank in 
flavor. The leaves may be cut frequently, as they readily grow again. 

Corn salad. — This is one of the earliest spring salad vegetables, 
coming into condition with spinach, and needing the same culture. 

Sown in the fall, and covered with straw or hay when cold weather 
sets in, it will start into rapid growth when the covering is removed in 
March or April. Or the seed may be sown in early spring, and plants 
will be fit to use in six or eight weeks. One packet of seed will suffice 
for a small family. 

Corn, sweet or sugar. — This is the characteristic American table 
vegetable, and one that every home-gardener expects to grow. Too 
often, however, only one planting of one kind is made. The ears come 
to edible maturity almost simultaneously, and a short season is the 
result. 

The first planting of sweet corn should be made from May 1 to 10, 
planting early, intermediate, and late varieties at the same time, then 
at intervals of two weeks until the middle of July, when the late vari- 
eties should be planted, thus having a succession from the first crop 
until October. 

The soil for corn should be fertile and " quick." The coarser manure 
left from the preparation of the ground for small crops may be used 
to good advantage. Corn for the garden is better planted in drills, 
the drills 3 feet apart, dropping the seed from 10 to 12 inches apart in 
the drills. One quart of seed will plant 200 hills. 



478 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

For extra early, Marblehead, Adams, Vermont, Minnesota, and 
Early Corey are favorites. A most excellent extra early yellow 
sweet corn, with kernels looking like small field corn, is Golden Bantam; 
the ears are small and would probably not attract the market buyer, 
but for home use the variety is unexcelled (Plate XXIV). For later 
crop, Crosby, Hickox, Shoe Peg, and Stowell Evergreen are now 
popular. 

Cress. — Two very unlike species of plants are grown under the 
name of cress, — the upland-cress and the water-cress. There are still 
other species, but not much known in this country. 

The upland cress, or the true pepper grass, may be grown on any 
garden soil. Sow early in the spring. It makes a rapid growth and 
can be cut in from four to five weeks. Succession of sowings must be 
made, as it runs quickly to seed. The curled variety is the one usually 
grown, as the leaves may be used for garnishing as well as for salads. 
One packet of seed will be sufficient for each sowing. Any good soil 
will do. Sow thickly in drills 12 to 18 inches apart. In summer 
it runs to seed quickly, so that it is usually grown in spring and fall. 

The water-cress is more exacting in its culture, and can be success- 
fully grown only in moist places, such as edges of shallow slow-run- 
ning creeks, open drains, or beds excavated near such streams. A 
few plants for private use may be grown in a frame, provided a reten- 
tive soil is used and attention given to watering the bed often. Water- 
cress may be propagated from pieces of the stem, used as cuttings. 
If one is fond of water-cress, it is well to colonize it in some clean creek 
or pool. It will take care of itself year by year. v Seeds may also be 
used for propagating it. 

Cucumber. — The custom of putting down cucumber pickles in the 
home kitchen is probably passing out; but both the pickling and the 
slicing cucumbers, especially the latter, are still an essential part of a 
good home garden. A stale or wilted cucumber is a very poor article 
of food. 

For early use, the cucumber is usually started in a hotbed or cold- 
frame by sowing the seed on pieces of sod 4 to 6 inches square, 
turned grass side down. Three or four seeds are placed on or pushed 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 479 

into each piece of sod and covered with 1 to 2 inches of fine soil. 
The soil should be well watered and the glass or cloth placed over the 
frame. The roots will run through the sod. When the plants are 
large enough to set out, a flat trowel or a shingle may be slipped under 
the sod and the plants moved to the hill without check. In place of 
sod, old quart berry-boxes are good; after setting in the hill the roots 
may force their way through the cracks in the baskets. The baskets 
also decay rapidly. Flower-pots may be used. These plants from 
the frames may be set out when danger of frost is over, usually by the 
10th of May, and should make a very rapid growth, yielding good-sized 
fruits in two months. The hills should be 
made rich by forking in a quantity of well- 
rotted manure, and given a slight elevation 
above the garden — not high enough to allow 
the wind to dry the soil, but slightly raised so 
that water will not stand around the roots. 

The main crop is grown from seed planted 
directly in the open, and the plants are grown 
under level culture. 

One ounce of seed will plant fifty hills of 
cucumbers. The hills may be 4 to 5 feet 306. West Indian gherkin 
apart each way. (Cucumis Anguria). 

The White Spine is the leading general-purpose variety. For very 
early or pickling sorts, the Chicago, Russian, and other picklings are 
good. 

The striped beetle is an- inveterate pest on cucumbers and squashes 
(see page 201). 

The name gherkin is applied to small pickling cucumbers. The 
West India gherkin is a wholly distinct species, but is grown like 
cucumbers. (Fig. 306.) 

Dandelion. — Under domestication the dandelion has been devel- 
oped until quite unrecognizable to the casual observer. The plants 
attain a large size and the leaves are much more tender. 

Sow in spring in well-manured soil, either in drills or in hills 1 
foot apart. A cutting of leaves may be had in September or October, 
and some of the stools may stand until spring. The delicacy of the 




480 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

leaves may be improved by blanching them, either by the use of boards 
or earth. One trade packet of seed will supply a sufficient number for 
a family. The whole plant is destroyed when the crop of leaves is 
taken. 

The seed may be selected from the best field-grown plants, but it 
is better to buy the French seed of the seedsmen. 

Egg-plant. — The egg-plant or guinea squash has never become 
a popular home-garden product in the North. In the South it is better 
known. 

Unless one has a greenhouse or a very warm hotbed, the growing 
of egg-plants in the North should be left to the professional gardener, 
as the young plants are very tender, and should be grown without a 

check. The seed should be sown in 
the hotbed or the greenhouse about 
April 10, keeping a temperature of 65° 
to 70°. When the seedlings have made 
three rough leaves, they may be pricked 
out into shallow boxes, or, still better, 
into 3-inch pots. The pots or boxes 
should be plunged to the rim in soil in 
a hotbed or coldframe so situated that 
protection may be given on chilly 
-^-X^^^^' nights. The 10th of June is early 

. _ _ !" x \ enough to plant them out in central 

307. Black Pekin egg-plant. ,.., ° . 

New York. 

The soil in which egg-plants are to grow cannot well be made too 
"quick," as they have only a short season in which to develop 
their fruits. The plants are usually set 3 feet apart each way. A 
dozen plants are sufficient for the needs of a large family, as each 
plant should yield from two to six large fruits. The fruits are fit 
to eat at all stages of growth, from those the size of a large egg to 
their largest development. One ounce of seed will furnish 600 to 800 
plants. 

The New York Improved Purple is the standard variety. Black 
Pekin (Fig. 307) is good. For early, or for a short-season climate, 
the Early Dwarf Purple is excellent. 







THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 



481 




Endive. — One of the best fall salad vegetables, being far superior to 
lettuce at that time and as easily grown. 
For fall use, the seed may be sown 
from June to August, and as the plants 
become fit to eat about the same time 
from sowing as lettuce does, a succession 
may be had until cold weather. The 
plants will need protection from the 
severe fall frosts, and this may be given 
by carefully lifting the plants and trans- 
planting to a frame, where sash or cloth 
may be used to cover 
them in freezing weather. 
The leaves, which con- 
stitute practically the whole plant, are blanched before 
being used, either by tying together with some soft 
material (Fig. 308) or by standing boards on each side 
of the row, allowing the top of the boards to meet over 
the center of the row. Tie the leaves only when they 
? Wm ) are dry. 

The rows should be 1| or 2 feet apart, the plants 
1 foot apart in the rows. One ounce of seed will sow 
150 feet of drill. 



308. Endive tied up. 



Garlic. — An onion-like plant, the bulbs of which are 
used for flavoring. 

Garlic is little known in this country except amongst 
those of foreign birth. It is multiplied the same as 
multiplier onions — the bulb is broken apart and each 
bulbule or "clove "makes a new compound bulb in a 
few weeks. Hardy; plant in early spring, or in the 
South in the fall. Plant 2 to 3 inches apart in the row. 



309. A good 
horseradish 
root. 

2l 



Horseradish. — Widely used as an appetizer, and 
now grown commercially. As a kitchen-garden vege- 
table, this is usually planted in some out-of-the-way 
spot and a piece of the root dug as often as needed, 



482 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

the fragments of roots being left in the soil to grow for further 
use. This method results in haying nothing but tough, stringy roots, 
very unlike the product of a properly planted and well-cared-for 
bed. A good horseradish root should be straight and shapely 
(Fig. 309). 

The best horseradish is secured from sets planted in the spring at 
the time of setting early cabbage, and dug as late the same fall as the 
weather will permit. It becomes, therefore, an annual crop. The 
roots for planting are small pieces, from 4 to 6 inches long, ob- 
tained when trimming the roots dug in the fall. These pieces may 
be packed in sand and stored until wanted the following spring. 

In planting, the roots should be set with the upper end 3 inches 
below the surface of the ground, using a dibber or sharp-pointed stick 
in making the holes. The crop may be planted between rows of early- 
sown beets, lettuce, or other crop, and given full possession of the 
ground when these crops are harvested. When the ground is inclined 
to be stiff or the subsoil is near the surface, the roots may be set in a 
slanting position. In fact, many gardeners practice this method of 
planting, thinking that the roots make a better growth and are more 
uniform in size. 

Kale. — Under this name, a great variety of cabbage-tribe plants is 
grown, some of them reaching a height of several feet. Usually, how- 
ever, the name is applied to a low-growing, spreading plant, exten- 
sively used for winter and spring greens. 

The culture given to late cabbage is suitable. At the approach of 
severe freezing weather a slight protection is given in the North. 
The leaves remain green through the winter and may be gathered 
from under the snow at a time when material for greens is scarce. 
Some of the kales are very ornamental because of their blue and 
purple curled foliage. The Scotch Curled is the most popular variety. 
Let the plants stand 18 to 30 inches apart. Young cabbage plants 
are sometimes used as kale. Collards and borecole are kinds of kale. 
Sea-kale is a wholly different vegetable (which see). 

Kales are extensively grown at Norfolk, Va., and southward, and 
shipped North in winter, the plants being started in late summer or 
in fall. 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 483 

Kohlrabi is little known in the United States. It looks like a leafy 
turnip growing above ground. 

If used when small (2 to 3 inches in diameter), and not allowed to 
become hard and tough, it is of superior quality. It should be more 
generally grown. The culture is very simple. A succession of sowings 
should be made from early spring until the middle of summer, in drills 
18 inches to 2 feet apart, thinning the young plants to 6 or 8 inches in 
the rows. It matures as quickly as turnips. One ounce of seed to 
100 feet of drill. 

Leek. — The leek is little grown in this country except by persons 
of foreign extraction. The plant is one of the onion family, and is 
used mostly as flavoring for soups. Well-grown leeks have a very 
agreeable and not very strong onion flavor. 

Leek is of the easiest culture, and is usually grown as a second crop, 
to follow beets, early peas, and other early stuff. The seed should be 
sown in a seed-bed in April or early May and the seedlings planted out 
in the garden in July, in rows 2 feet apart, the plants being 6 inches 
apart in the rows. The plants should be set deep if the neck or lower 
part of the leaves is to be used in a blanched condition. The soil may 
be drawn towards the plants in hoeing, to further the blanching. Being 
very hardy, the plants may be dug in late fall, and stored the same as 
celery, in trenches or in a cool root-cellar. One ounce of seed to 100 
feet of drill. 

Lettuce is the most extensively grown salad vegetable. It is now in 
demand, and is procurable, every month in the year. The winter and 
early spring crops are grown in forcing-houses and coldframes, but a 
supply from the garden may be had from April to November, by the 
use of a cheap frame in which to grow the first and last crops, relying 
on a succession of sowings for the intermediate supply. 

Seed for the first crop may be sown in a coldframe in March, grow- 
ing the crop thick and having many plants which are small and tender; 
or, by thinning out to the distance of 3 inches and allowing the 
plants to make a larger growth, the plants pulled up may be set in the 
open ground for the next crop. 

Sowings should be made in the garden from April to October, at 



484 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

short intervals. A moist location should be chosen for the July and 
August sowings. The early and late sowings should be of some loose- 
growing variety, as they are in edible condition sooner than the cabbage 
or heading varieties. 

The cabbage varieties are far superior to the loose-growing kinds 
for salads. To be grown to perfection, they should have very rich soil, 
frequent cultivation, and an occasional stimulant, such as liquid ma- 
nure or nitrate of soda. 

The cos lettuce is an upright-growing type much esteemed in 
Europe, but less grown here. The leaves of the full-grown plants are 
tied together, thus blanching the center, making it a desirable salad or 
garnishing variety. It thrives best in summer. 

One ounce of seed will grow 3000 plants or sow 100 feet of drill. In 
the garden, plants may stand 6 inches apart in the rows, and the rows 
may be as close together as the system of tillage will allow. 

Mushroom. — Sooner or later, the novice wants to grow mushrooms. 
While it is easy to describe the conditions under which they may be 
grown, it does not follow that a crop may be predicted with any cer- 
tainty. 

Latterly, careful studies have been made of the growing of mush- 
rooms from spores and of the principles involved in the making of 
spawn, with the hope of reducing the whole subject of mushroom 
growing to a rational basis. A good idea of this work may be had by 
reading Duggar's contribution on the subject in Bulletin 85 of the 
Bureau of Plant Industry, United States Department of Agriculture. 
In this place, however, we may confine ourselves to the customary 
horticultural practice. 

The following paragraphs are from " Farmers' Bulletin," No. 53 
(by William Falconer), of the U. S. Dept. of Agriculture (March, 
1897):— 

Mushrooms are a winter crop, coming in from September till April 
or May — that is, the work of preparing the manure begins in Septem- 
ber and ends in February, and the packing of the crop begins in Octo- 
ber or November and ends in May. Under extraordinary conditions 
the season may begin earlier and last longer, and, in fact, it may con- 
tinue all summer. 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 485 

Mushrooms can be grown almost anywhere out of doors, and also 
indoors where there is a dry bottom in which to set the beds, where a 
uniform and moderate temperature can be maintained, and where the 
beds can be protected from wet overhead, and from winds, drought, 
and direct sunshine. Among the most desirable places in which to 
grow mushrooms are barns, cellars, closed tunnels, sheds, pits, green- 
houses, and regular mushroom houses. Total darkness is not impera- 
tive, for mushrooms grow well in open light if shaded from sunshine. 
The temperature and moisture are more apt to be equable in dark places 
than in open, light ones, and it is largely for this reason that mushroom 
houses are kept dark. 

The best fertilizer for mushrooms, so far as the writer's experience 
goes, is fresh horse manure. Get together a lot of this material (short 
and strawy) that has been well trampled and wetted in the stable. 
Throw it into a heap, wet it well if it is at all dry, and let it heat. 
When it begins to steam, turn it over, shake it well so as to mix thor- 
oughly and evenly, and then tramp it down solid. After this let it stand 
till it again gets quite warm ; then turn, shake, trample as before, and add 
water freely if it is getting dry. Repeat this turning, moistening, and 
trampling as often as it is needful to keep the manure from " burning." 
If it gets intensely hot, spread it out to cool, after which again throw it 
together. After being turned in this way several times, and the heat 
in it is not apt to rise above 130° F., it should be ready to make up in 
the beds. By adding to the manure at the second or third turning one- 
fourth or one-fifth of its bulk of loam, the tendency to intense heating is 
lessened and its usefulness not at all impaired. Some growers prefer 
short manure exclusively, that is, the horse droppings, while others 
like a good deal of straw mixed in with this. The writer's experience, 
however, is that, if properly prepared, it matters little which is used. 

Ordinarily the beds are only 8 to 10 inches deep; that is, they are 
faced with 10-inch- wide hemlock boards, and are only the depth of this 
board. In such beds put a layer of fresh, moist, hot manure, and 
trample it down firm until it constitutes half the depth of the bed; 
then fill up with the prepared manure, which should be rather cool 
(100° to 115° F.) when used, and pack all firmly. If desired, the beds 
can be made up entirely of the prepared manure. Shelf beds are 
usually 9 inches deep ; that is, the shelf is bottomed with 1-inch boards 



486 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

and faced with 10-inch wide boards. This allows about 8 inches for 
manure, and 1 inch rising to 2 inches of loam on top. In filling the 
shelf beds the bottom half may be of fresh, moist or wettish, hot 
manure, packed down solid, and the top half of rather cool prepared 
manure, or it may be made up of all prepared manure. As the shelf 
beds cannot be trodden and cannot be beaten very firm with the back 
of the fork, a brick is used in addition to the fork. 

The beds should be spawned after the heat in them has fallen below 
100° F. The writer considers 90° F. about the best temperature for 
spawning. If the beds have been covered with hay, straw, litter, or 
mats, these should be removed. Break each brick into twelve or fif- 
teen pieces. The rows should be, say, 1 foot apart, the first one being 
6 inches from the edge, and the pieces should be 9 inches apart in the 
row. Commencing with the first row, lift up each piece, raise 2 to 3 
inches of the manure with the hand, and into this hole place the piece, 
covering over tightly with the manure. When the entire bed is 
spawned, pack the surface all over. It is well to cover the beds again 
with straw, hay, or mats, to keep the surface equally moist. The flake 
spawn is planted in the same way as the brick spawn, only not quite 
so deep. 

At the end of eight or nine days the mulching should be removed 
and the beds covered with a layer of good loam 2 inches thick, so that 
the mushrooms can come up in and through it. This gives them a firm 
hold, and to a large extent improves their quality and texture. Any 
fair loam will do. That from an ordinary field, wayside, or garden is 
generally used, and it answers admirably. There exists an idea that 
garden soil surfeited with old manure is unfit for mushroom beds 
because it is apt to produce spurious fungi. This, however, is not the 
case. In fact, it is the earth most commonly used. For molding the 
beds the loam should be rather fine, free, and mellow, so that it can be 
easily and evenly spread and compacted firmly into the manure. 

If an even atmospheric temperature of from 55° to 60° F. can be 
maintained, and the house or cellar containing the mushroom beds is 
kept close and free from drafts, the beds may be left uncovered, and 
should be watered if they become dry. But no matter where the beds 
are situated, it is well to lay some loose hay or straw or some old mat- 
ting or carpet over them to keep them moist. The covering, however, 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 487 

should be removed just as soon as the young mushrooms begin to appear 
above ground. If the atmosphere is dry, the pathways and walls 
should be sprinkled with water. The mulching should also be sprinkled, 
but not enough to cause the water to soak into the bed. However, if 
the bed should get dry, do not hesitate to water it. 

Mustard. — Almost all the mustards are good for greens, though 
white mustard is usually best. Chinese mustard is also valuable. 

Seed should be sown in drills, 3 to 3? feet apart, and covered with a 
half inch of soil. The ease with which they may be grown, and the 
abundance of herbage which they yield, mark their special utility. 
Sow very early for spring greens, and in late summer or early Septem- 
ber for fall greens. 

Muskmelon. — The most delicious of all garden vegetables eaten from 
the hand, and of simple cultivation; but like many another plant that 
is easy to grow it often fails completely. The season and soil must 
be warm and the growth continuous. 

The natural soil for melons is a light, sandy loam, well enriched with 
rotted manure, although good crops may be grown on land naturally 
heavy if the hills are specially prepared. When only heavy soil is 
available, the earth where the seeds are to be planted should be thor- 
oughly pulverized and mixed with fine, well-rotted manure. A sprink- 
ling of leaf mold or chip-dirt will help to lighten it. On this hill from 
ten to fifteen seeds may be sown, thinning to four or five vines when 
danger of insects is over. 

The season may be advanced and the damage from insects lessened 
by starting the plants in hotbeds. This may be done by using fresh 
sod, cut into 6-inch pieces, placing them grass-side down in the hotbed, 
sowing eight to ten seeds on each piece, and covering with 2 inches of 
light soil. When all danger of frost is over, and the ground has become 
warm, these sods may be carefully lifted and set in the prepared hills. 
The plants usually grow without check, and fruit from two to four weeks 
ahead of those from seed planted directly in the hill. Old quart berry- 
boxes are excellent to plant seeds in, as, when they are set in the ground, 
they vety quickly decay, causing no restriction to the roots. 

Netted Gem, Hackensack, Emerald Gem, Montreal, Osage, and the 



488 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Nutmeg melon are popular varieties. One ounce of seed will plant 
about fifty hills. 

Okra. — A plant of the cotton family, from the green pods of which 
is made the well-known gumbo soup of the South, where the plant is 
more extensively grown than in the North. The pods are also used in 
their green state for stews, and are dried and used in winter, when they 
are nutritious, and form no little part of the diet in certain sections of 
the country. 

The seeds are very sensitive to cold and moisture, and should not 
be sown until the ground has become warm — the last week in May or 
the first of June being early enough in New York. The seed should be 
sown iii a drill 1 inch deep, the plants thinned to stand 12 inches 
in the row. Give the same culture as for corn. One ounce will sow 
40 feet of drill. Dwarf varieties are best for the North. Green 
Density and Velvet are leading varieties. 

Onion. — A few onions, of one kind or another, give character to 
every good kitchen-garden. They are grown from seeds (" black 
seed ") for the main crop. They are also grown from sets (which are 
very small onions, arrested in their development) ; from " tops " 
(which are bulblets produced in the place of flowers) ; and from multi- 
pliers or potato onions, which are compound bulbs. 

The extremely early crop of Onions is grown from sets, and the late 
or fall crop is grown from seed sown in April or early May. The sets 
may be saved from the crop harvested the previous fall, saving no bulbs 
measuring over three-fourths of an inch in diameter, or, better, they 
may be purchased from the seedsman. These sets should be planted as 
early as possible in the spring, preferably on land that has been manured 
and trenched in the fall. Plant in rows 12 inches apart, the sets 
being 2 or 3 inches in the row. Push the sets well down into the 
ground and cover with soil, firming them with the feet or a roller. In 
cultivating, the soil should be thrown towards the tops, as the white 
stems are usually sought as an indication of mildness. The crop will 
be in condition to use in three to four weeks, and may be made to last 
until small seed onions are to be had. Tops or multipliers may also be 
used for the early crop. 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 



489 



In growing onions from seed, it is only necessary to say that the seed 
should be in the ground very early in order that the bulbs make their 
growth before the extreme hot weather of August, when, for want of 
moisture and because of the heat, the bulbs will ripen up while small. 
Early in April, in New York, if 
the ground is in condition, the 
seed should be sown thickly in 
drills from 12 to 16 inches apart, 
and the ground above the seeds 
well firmed. Good cultivation 
and constant weeding is the price 
of a good crop of onions. In cul- 
tivating and hoeing, the soil 
should be kept away from the 
rows, not covering the growing 
bulbs, but allowing them to 
spread over the surface of the 
ground. When the crop is ready 
to be harvested, the bulbs may 
be pulled or cultivated up, left to 
dry in double rows for several 
days, the tops and roots taken 
off, and the bulbs stored in a dry 
place. Later in the season they 
may be allowed to freeze, cover- 
ing with chaff or straw to hold 
them frozen, and kept until early 
spring; but this method is usually 31 °- Bunch onions, grown from seed, 
unsafe with beginners, and always so in a changeable climate. Onion 
seed should always be fresh when sown — preferably of the last year's 
crop. One ounce of onion seed will sow 100 feet of drill. 

One of the recent methods of securing extra large and also early 
bulbs from seed is to sow the seed in a hotbed in February or early 
March, and transplant to the open ground in April. A bunch of onions, 
for eating from hand, is shown in Fig. 310. 

The Dan vers, Prizetaker, Globe, and Wethersfield are favorite va- 
rieties, with the addition of White Queen or Barletta for pickling. 




490 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



Parsley. — This is the most universal of garnishes. It is used also 

as a flavoring in soups. 

The seed is slow to germinate, and often* the second or third sowing 

is made, thinking the first is a failure; but usually after what would 
seem a long time the young plants will be 
seen. When sown in the open ground, it 
should be thinned to stand 3 or 4 inches in 
the row, the rows being 10 to 12 inches 
apart. A few plants in a border will give a 
supply for a large family, and with a little 
protection will live over winter. 

Roots may be lifted in the fall, put into 
boxes or old cans, and grown in a sunny 
window for winter use. The Curled pars- 
ley is the form commonly used. 




Parsnip. — A standard winter and spring 
vegetable, of the easiest culture in deep soil 
(Fig. 311). 

Parsnips are the better for the winter's 
freeze, although they are of good quality if 
taken up after the fall frosts and packed in 
soil, sand, or moss in the cellar. 

The seed, which must be not over one 
year old, should be sown as early as possible 
in well-prepared soil, firmed with the feet 
or roller. As the seed germinates rather 
slowly, the ground often becomes crusted 
or baked over the seeds, in which case it 
should be broken and fined with a garden rake. This operation often 
means the success of the crop. Radish or cabbage seeds may be sown 
with the parsnip seed to mark the row and break the crust. One 
ounce of seed will sow 200 feet of drill. Thin to 6 inches apart in the row. 



311. 



The Student parsnip, 
leading variety. 



Pea. — Perhaps no vegetable is planted in greater expectancy than 
the pea. It is one of the earliest seeds to go into the ground, and the 
planting fever is impatient. 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 491 

There is great difference in quality between the smooth and the 
wrinkled peas. The first are a little the earliest to be planted and to 
become fit for use, and on that account should be planted in a small 
way ; but the wrinkled sorts are much superior in quality. 

The early crop of peas may be forwarded by sprouting the seeds in- 
doors. Soil may be made too rich or strong for peas. 

For the kitchen-garden the dwarf and half-dwarf varieties are the 
best, as the tall kinds will need brush or wire to support them, causing 
considerable trouble and labor and not being as neat in appearance. 
The dwarf varieties should be planted four rows in a block, each row 
being only 6 or 8 inches apart. The peas on the two center rows 
may be picked from the outside. Leave a space of 2 feet and plant 
the same. 

The tall varieties yield a larger crop than the dwarfs, but as the rows 
must be made from 3 to 5 feet apart, the dwarf ones, which are 
planted only 6 to 8 inches apart, will give as large a yield on the 
same area. Always plant double rows of the tall varieties ; that is, 
two rows from 4 to 6 inches apart, with the brush or wire between, 
the double rows being from 3 to 5 feet apart, according to varieties. 

At the time of the first planting only the smooth varieties should be 
sown, but by the middle of April in New York the ground will be warm 
and dry enough for wrinkled sorts. Succession crops should be sown 
that will come to maturity one after 
the other, extending the season six 
or eight weeks. If a further supply 
is wanted, the early quick-maturing 
varieties may be sown in August, 
usually giving a fair crop of peas in 
September and early October. In 
the hot weather of midsummer 
they do not thrive so well. One 
quart of seed will plant about 100 
feet of drill. 

Pepper. — The garden pepper 
is not the pepper of commerce ; it 
is more properly known as red 312. One of the bell peppers. 




492 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

pepper (though the pods are not always red), chilli, and capsicum. 
The pods are much used in the South, and most Northern households 
now employ them to some extent. 

Peppers are tender while young, although they will endure a heavy 
frost in the fall. Their culture is that recommended for egg-plants. 
A small seedsman's packet of seed will be sufficient for a large number of 
plants, say two hundred. The large bell peppers (Fig. 312) are the 
mildest, and are used for making " stuffed peppers " and other dishes. 
The small, hot peppers are used for seasoning and sauces. 

Potato. — The potato is rather more a field crop than a home-garden 
product; yet the home-gardener often desires to grow a small early lot. 

The common practice of growing potatoes on elevated ridges or hills 
is wrong, unless the soil is so wet that this practice is necessary to insure 
proper drainage (but in this case the land is not adapted to the grow- 
ing of potatoes), or unless it is necessary, in a particular place, to secure 
a very early crop. If the land is elevated into ridges or hills, there is 
great loss of moisture by means of evaporation. During the last culti- 
vating the potatoes may be hilled up slightly in order to cover the tu- 
bers; but the hills should not be made in the beginning for the main 
crop if land and conditions are right. 

Land for potatoes should be rather loamy in character, and ought 
to have a liberal supply of potash, either naturally or supplied in the 
drill, by means of an application of sulfate of potash. See that the 
land is deeply plowed or spaded, so that the roots can penetrate deeper. 
Plant the potatoes 3 or 4 inches below the natural surface oi* the 
ground. It is ordinarily best to drop the pieces in drills. A continu- 
ous drill or row may be made by dropping one piece every 6 inches, 
but it is usually thought best to drop two pieces about every 12 to 
18 inches. The drills are far enough apart to allow good cultivation*/ 
If horse cultivation is used, the drills should be at least 3 feet apart. 

Small potatoes are considered not to be so good as large ones for 
planting. One reason is because too many sprouts arise from each one, 
and these sprouts are likely to crowd each other. The same is true of 
the tip end or seed end of the tuber. Even when the tip is cut off, the 
eyes are so numerous that one secures many weak shoots rather than 
two or three strong ones. It is ordinarily best to cut the potatoes 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 493 

to two or three eyes, leaving as much tuber as possible with each piece. 
From 7 to 10 bushels of potatoes are required to plant an acre. 

For a very early crop in the garden, tubers are sometimes sprouted 
in the cellar. When the sprouts are 4 to 6 inches high, the tubers 
are carefully planted. It is essential that the sprouts are not broken 
in the handling. In this practice, also, the tubers are first cut into 
large pieces, so that they will not dry out too much. 

The staple remedy for the potato bug is Paris green, 2 pounds or 
more of poison to 150 to 200 gallons of water, with a little lime (see 
page 193). For the blight, spray with bordeaux mixture, and spray 
thoroughly. Bordeaux mixture will also keep away the flea beetle 
to a large extent. 

Radish (Plate XXV) . — In all parts of the country the radish is 
popular as a side-dish, being used as an appetizer and for its decora- 
tive character. It is a poor product, however, if 
misshapen, wormy, or tough. 

Radishes should be grown quickly in order to 
have them at their best. They become tough 
and woody if grown slowly or allowed to stay in 
the ground too long. A light soil, well enriched, 
will grow most of the early varieties to table size 
in three to five weeks. To have a supply through 
the early months, sowings should be made every 
two weeks. For spring use, the French Breakfast 
is still a standard variety (Fig. 313). 

For summer, the large white or gray varieties 
are best. The winter varieties may be sown in 
September, harvested before severe frosts, and 
stored in sand in a cool cellar. When they are to 313 French Breakfast 
be used, if thrown into cold water for a short time and olive-shaped 
they will regain their crispness. radishes. 

Sow radishes thickly in drills, 12 to 18 inches apart. Thin as needed. 

Rhubarb, or Pie plant. — A strong perennial herb, to be grown in a 
bed or row by itself at one end or side of the garden. It is a heavy 
feeder. 




494 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



Rhubarb is usually propagated by division of the fleshy roots, small 
pieces of which will grow if separated from the old established roots and 
planted in rich mellow soil. Poor soil should be made rich by spading 
out at least 3 feet of the surface, filling with well-rotted manure to 
within 1 foot of the level, throwing in the top soil and setting the roots 
with the crowns 4 inches below the surface, firming them with the 
feet. The stalks should not be cut for use until the second year. Se; 
that the plant does not want for water when it is making its heavy leaf 
growth. In fall, coarse manure should be thrown over the crowns, to 
be forked or spaded in lightly when spring opens. 

In growing seedling rhubarb, the seed may be sown in a coldframe 
in March or April, protected from freezing, and in two months the 
plants will be ready to set in rows, 12 inches 
apart. Give the plants good cultivation, 
and the following spring they may be set in 
a permanent place. At this time the plants 
should be set in well-prepared ground, 
at a distance each way of 4 to 5 feet, 
and treated as those set with pieces of 
roots. 

If given good care and well manured, 
the plants will live for years and yield 
abundantly. Two dozen good roots will 
supply a large family. 

Salsify, or Vegetable oyster (Fig. 314).- 
Salsify is one of the best of winter and 
early spring vegetables, and should be 
grown in every garden. It may be cooked 
in several different ways, to bring out the 
oyster flavor. 

The seed should be sown as early in 
the spring as possible. Handle the same 
as parsnips in every way. The roots, 
like parsnips, are the better for the winter 
freeze, but part of the crop should be 
dug in the fall, and stored in soil or moss in a cellar for winter use. 




314. 



Salsify, or oyster 
plant. 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 495 

Sea-kale is a strong-rooted perennial, the shoots of which are very 
highly prized as a delicacy when blanched. 

Seed should be sown in a hotbed early in the spring, plants trans- 
planted to the garden when from 2 to 3 inches high, and given 
good cultivation through the season, being covered with litter on the 
approach of winter. The young stalks are blanched early the follow- 
ing spring by covering with large pots or boxes, or by banking with sand 
or other clean material. The Dwarf Green Scotch, Dwarf Brown, and 
Siberian are among the leading varieties. Sea-kale is eaten much as 
asparagus is. It is highly prized by those who know it. 

Sea-kale is also propagated by cuttings of the roots 4 or 5 inches 
long, planted directly in the soil in spring. The plant being perennial, 
the early shoots may be bleached year after year. 

Sorrel of the European garden sorts may be sown in spring, in drills 
16 inches apart in beds, or 3 to 3| feet apart in rows. After the 
plants are well established they should be thinned to 10 to 12 
inches apart in the rows. They are perennial, and may be kept grow- 
ing in the same place for several years. Broad-leaved French is the 
most popular variety. 

'Spearmint is prized by many persons as a seasoning, particularly for 
the Thanksgiving and holiday cookery. 

It is a perennial and perfectly hardy, and will live in the open garden 
year after year. If a supply of the fresh herbage is wanted in winter, 
remove sods of it to the house six weeks before wanted. Place the sods 
in boxes, and treat as for house plants. The plants should have been 
frosted and become perfectly dormant before removal. 

Spinach. — The most extensively grown of all " greens," being in 
season in earliest spring, and in fall and winter. 

The earliest spinach that finds its way to market is produced from 
seed sown in September or October, often protected by frames or other 
means through the severe winter, and cut soon after growth starts in 
early spring. Even as far north as New York spinach may stand over 
winter without protection. 

Spinach is forced by placing sash over the frames in February and 



496 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

March, protecting the young leaves from severe freezing by mats or 
straw thrown over the frames. 

Seed may be sown in early spring for a succession; later in the season 
seed of the New Zealand summer spinach may be sown, and this will 
grow through the heat of the summer and yield a fine quality of leaves. 
The seed of this kind, being very hard, should be scalded and allowed 
to soak a few hours before sowing. This seed is usually sown in hills 
about 3 feet apart,, sowing four to six seed in each hill. 

The spring and winter spinach should be sown in drills 12 to 
14 inches apart, one ounce being sufficient for 100 feet of drill. 
Remember that common spinach is a cool-weather (fall and spring) 
crop. 

Squash. — The summer squashes rarely fail of a crop if they once 
escape the scourge of the striped beetle (p. 201). The late varieties 

are not so certain; they must secure a 
strong start, and be on " quick " fertile 
warm land in order to make a crop be- 
fore the cool nights of fall (Fig. 315). 

The time of planting, method of prepar- 
ing the hills, and after-culture are the same 
as for cucumbers and melons, except that 
315. One oFthe so-called Jap- for th e early bush varieties the hills should 
anese type of squash (Cu- be 4 or 5 feet apart, and for the later 
curbita moschata). running varieties from 6 to 8 feet apart. 

From eight to ten seeds should be planted in each hill, thinning to 
four plants after danger from bugs is over. Of the early squashes, 
one ounce of seed will plant fifty hills; of the later varieties, one ounce 
will plant but eighteen to twenty hills. For winter use, varieties of 
the Hubbard type are best. For summer use, the Crooknecks and 
Scallop squashes are popular. In growing winter squashes in a North- 
ern climate, it is essential that the plants start off quickly and vigor- 
ously: a little chemical fertilizer will help. 
Pumpkins are grown the same as squashes. 

Sweet-potato is rarely grown north of Philadelphia; in the South it 
is a universal garden crop. 




THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 497 

Sweet-potatoes are grown from sprouts planted on ridges or hills, 
not by planting the tubers, as with the common or Irish potato. The 
method of obtaining these sprouts is as follows: In April, tubers of 
sweet-potatoes are planted in a partially spent hotbed by using the 
whole tuber (or if a large one, by cutting it in two through the long way), 
covering the tubers with 2 inches of light, well-firmed soil. The sash 
should be put on the frames and only enough ventilation given to keep 
the potatoes from decaying. In ten or twelve days the young sprouts 
should begin to appear, and the bed should be watered if dry. The 
sprouts when pulled from the tuber will be found to have rootlets at the 
lower end and along the stems. These sprouts should be about 3 to 5 
inches long by the time the ground is warm enough to plant them 
out on their ridges. 

The ridges or hills should be prepared by plowing out a furrow 4 to 
6 inches deep. Scatter manure in the furrow and plow back the soil 
so as to raise the center at least 6 inches above the level of the soil. 
On this ridge the plants^are set, placing the plants well in to the leaves 
and about 12 to 18 inches apart in the rows, the rows being from 3 to 4 
feet apart. 

The after-cultivation consists in stirring the soil between the ridges ; 
and a^ the vines begin to run they should be lifted frequently to pre- 
vent rooting at the joints. When the tips of the vines have been 
touched by frost the crop may be harvested, the tubers left to dry a few 
days, and stored in a dry, warm place. 

To keep sweet potatoes, store in layers in barrels or boxes in dry 
sand, and keep them in a dry room See that all bruised or chilled 
potatoes are thrown out. 

Tomato. — The tomato is an inhabitant of practically every home 
garden, and everybody understands its culture (Fig. 316). 

The early fruits are very easily grown by starting the plants in a 
greenhouse, hotbed, or in shallow boxes placed in windows. A pinch 
of seed sown in March will give all the early plants a large family can 
use. When the plants have reached the height of 2 or 3 inches, 
they should be transplanted into 3-inch flower-pots, old berry 
boxes, or other receptacles, and allowed to grow slowly and stocky 
until time to set them out, which is from May 15 on (in New York). 
2k 



498 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



They should be set in rows 4 or 5 feet apart, the plants being the 
same distance in the rows. 

Some support should be given to keep the fruits off the ground and 
to hasten the ripening. A trellis of chicken-wire makes an excellent 
support, as does the light lath fencing that may be bought or made at 
home. Stout stakes, with wire strung the length of the rows, afford 

an excellent support. A very 
showy method is that of a frame 
made like an inverted V, which 
allows the fruits to hang free ; 
with a little attention to trimming, 




316. A good form or type of tomato. 




317. A tomato trellis 



the light reaches the fruits and ripens them perfectly (Fig. 317). This 
support is made by leaning together two lath frames. 

The late fruits may be picked green and ripened on a shelf in the 
sun; or they will ripen if placed in a drawer. 

One ounce of seed will be enough for from twelve to fifteen hundred 
plants. A little fertilizer in the hill will start the plants off quickly. 
The rot is less serious when the vines are kept off the ground and the 
rampant suckers are cut out. Varieties pass out and new ones come 
into notice, so that a list is of small permanent value. 



Turnips and Rutabagas are little grown in home gardens; and yet 
a finer quality of vegetable than most persons know could be secured 
if these plants were raised on one's own soil and brought fresh to the 
table. They are usually a fall crop, from seed sown in July and early 
August, although some kitchen-gardens have them from spring-sown 
seed. The culture is easy. 



THE GROWING OF THE VEGETABLE PLANTS 499 

Turnips should be grown in drills, like beets, for the early crop. 
The young plants will stand light frosts. Choose a rainy day for plant- 
ing, if practicable. Cover the seed very lightly. Thin the young 
plants to 5 to 7 inches in the row. Sow every -two weeks if a 
constant supply is desired, as turnips rapidly become hard and woody 
in warm summer weather. For the fall and winter crop in the North, 
"On the fourteenth day of July, 
Sow your turnips, wet or dry." 

In many parts of the northern and middle states tradition fixes 
the 25th of July as the proper time for sowing flat turnips for winter 
use. In the middle states, turnips are sometimes sown as late as the 
end of August. Prepare a piece of very mellow ground, and sow the 
seed thinly and evenly broadcast. In spite of the old rhyme, a gentle 
shower will then be acceptable. These turnips are pulled after frost, 
the tops removed, and the roots stored in cellars or pits. 

For the early crop, Purple-top Strap-leaf, Early White Flat Dutch, 
and Early Purple-top Milan are the favorite varieties. Yellow-fleshed 
sorts like Golden Ball are very fine for early table use, when well grown, 
but most eaters prefer white turnips in spring, although they occasion- 
ally patronize the yellow varieties in the fall. Yellow Globe is the 
favorite yellow fall turnip, though some persons grow yellow rutabagas 
and call them turnips. For late crop of white turnips, the same varie- 
ties chosen for spring sowing are also desirable. 

Rutabagas are distinguished from turnips by their smooth, bluish 
foliage, long root, and yellow flesh. They are richer than turnips; 
they require the same treatment, except that the season of growth 
is longer. Fall-sown or summer-sown bagas should have a month the 
start of flat turnips. 

Except the maggot (see cabbage maggot, p. 201), there are no 
serious insects or diseases peculiar to turnips and bagas. 

Watermelon. — The watermelon is shipped everywhere in such 
enormous quantities, and it covers so much space in the garden, that 
home-gardeners in the North seldom grow it. When one has room, 
it should be added to the kitchen-garden. 

The culture is essentially that for muskmelons (which see), except 
that most varieties require a warmer place and longer period of growth. 



500 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Give the hills a distance of 6 to 10 feet apart. Choose a warm, 
"quick" soil and sunny exposure. It is essential, in the North, that 
the plants grow rapidly and come into bloom early. One ounce of 
seed will plant thirty hills. 

There are several white or yellow-fleshed varieties, but aside from 
their oddity of appearance they have little value. A good watermelon 
has a solid, bright red flesh, preferably with black seeds, and a strong 
protecting rind. Kolb Gem, Jones, Boss, Cuban Queen, and Dixie 
are among the best varieties. There are early varieties that will ripen 
in the Northern season, and make a much better melon than those 
secured on the market. 

The so-called "citron," with hard white flesh, used in making pre- 
serves, is a form of watermelon. 



CHAPTER XI 

SEASONAL REMINDERS 

The author assumes that a person who is intelligent enough 
to make a garden, does not need an arbitrary calendar of 
operations. Too exact advice is misleading and unpractical. 
Most of the older gardening books were arranged wholly on 
the calendar method — giving specific directions for each month 
in the year. We have now accumulated sufficient fact and 
experience, however, to enable us to state principles; and these 
principles can be applied anywhere, — when supplemented 
by good judgment, — whereas mere rules are arbitrary and 
generally useless for any other condition than that for which 
they were specifically made. The regions of gardening experi- 
ence have expanded enormously within the past fifty and seventy- 
five years. Seasons and conditions vary so much in different 
years and different places that no hard and fast advice can be 
given for the performing of gardening operations, yet brief hints 
for the proper work of the various months may be useful as sug- 
gestions and reminders. 

The Monthly Reminders are compiled from files of the 
" American Garden" of some years back, when the author had 
editorial charge of that magazine. The advice for the North 
(pages 504 to 516) was written by T. Greiner, La Salle, N.Y. 
well known as a gardener and author. That for the South 
(pages 516 to 526) was made by H. W. Smith, Baton Rouge, 
La., for the first nine months, and it was extended for "Garden- 
Making" to the months of October, November, and December 
by F. H. Burnette, Horticulturist of the Louisiana Experiment 
Station. 

501 



502 



MANUAL OF GARDENING 



KITCHEN-GARDEN PLANTING TABLE 

A Guide to the Proper Times for Sowing of Various Seeds 

in Order to obtain Continuous Succession 

of Crops 



VEGETABLES 

In Um 

KITCHEN OARDEN. 


fc 


£ 


s 


I 
< 


a 


i 


1- 


< 


| 


2 

6 


1 

12 

7 

10 
12 


1 
e 

I 

12 

10 
12 


Explanation of Signs Used 
, In the Table. 


Artichoke, American 
" French . 

Asparagus . 
Beans, Bush . 

•' Pole and Lima 


6 


4 
6 


5 
6 

4 

4 

4 
4 
5 
4 
4 
4 
5 


• 
1 

• 
• 

4 

i 

i" 

i 

■• 
i 
i 
i 

• 

• 

2 

• 
• 
12 
4 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
• 
4 

• 
• 
4 
1 
• 
• 
2 
4 
• 
4 
3 

o 
• 
• 
4 
1 


• 
1 

2 

• 
• 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
• 
1 
1 
1 
• 

• 
2 

• 
• 
• 
• 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
• 
• 

• 
• 
2 
1 
• 
• 
2 
1 
• 
• 
3 

• 
• 
• 
1 


2 

• 

2 

• 
• 
2 

• 
3 

• 

• 
1 


2 

• 
1 

• 

• 
2 

1 

1 

2 
9 

2 

• 
2 


• 
• 
• • 

• 
• 

6 

• 

6 
11 

• 

• 

• 
• 

6 

• 


V 

7 

• 

8 

12 
6 

9 

10 

• 

9 

• 
• 

2 

6 

• 


7 

7 

12 

9 

10 
12 

• 
9 
8 


# To be sown In open ground 
without transplanting. 
Plants have to be thinned oat, 
given proper distance. 

1. Sow on seed bed in the 
garden. And transplant tbence 
to permanent place. 

2. Make two sowings in 
open ground during the 
month. 

3. Make three sowings in 
open ground during the 
month. 

4. Start in greenhouse or 
hot-bed, and plant out bo 


Borecole, Kale . 




4 

4 
4 
6 
4 
4 
4 


Brussels Sprouts 
Cabbage, all sorts 

Cardoon 

Carrot 

Cauliflower . 


6 
6 






good shape, and weather per- 






Collards 






5. Sow In open ground hs 


" Sweet . . . 








6. To be grown only in hot- 
bed or greenhouse. 


•• Salad . . 

Cress 

Cucumber ... 
Egg Plants 


12 
6 


12 
6 
6 


5 

12 
6 

4 

4 
4 
4 
5 
6 
11 
12 

4 
4 
5 
4 
5 
4 


7. Sow In cold frame, keep 
plants there over winter with 
a little protection ; plant out 
i n spring as soon as the ground 
can be worked. 


Kohlrabi .... 

Leek 

Lettuce ... 

Mangel 

Melon 

Mushroom ... 

Mustard .... 

Nasturtium 

Okra 


6 

6 

6 

10 
12 


6 
4 

4 

6 

10 
12 


8. To be sown Id open 
ground, and protected with 
titter over winter. 

9. Plant In frame. When 
cold weather sets in, cover 
with sash and straw mat*. 
Plants will be ready for use 
in December and January. 

10. Plant In cellar, barn or 
under benches in greenhouse. 






4 


11. Plant outdoors on pre- 
pared beds. 






Parsley 


6 


6 


house or frame, to have a good 


Pepper .... 




4 


N.B.— For last planting of 










Radish 

Rutabaga ... 
Salsify 


12 


12 


12 

6 
5 

5 
4 
4 


Peas and Radishes, or even 
Tomatoes, take the earliest 
varieties, Just the same aa are 
used for first planting. 
—The late sowings of Salsify 


Seakale . . , . 










turned over winter. Roots 


Tomato 

Turnips ..... 


6 


6 


•|:: 


from these sowings will, the 
next year, attain a size double 
that usually Been. 



SEASONAL REMINDERS 



503 




504 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

SUGGESTIONS AND REMINDERS. — I. FOR THE NORTH 

JANUARY 

Cabbage plants in frames need free airing whenever the temperature 
is above the freezing point, or so long as the soil of the bed is not 
frozen. Snow, in that case, should be removed soon after its fall. 
As long as the soil is frozen the snow can safely be left on for a number 
of days. Cabbage, cauliflower, and lettuce seed should be sown at 
intervals to secure plants for extra-early sales or setting. A month 
later they will be ready to transfer to boxes, which should go to the 
coldframe and be given protection by mats or shutters. 

Coldframes must be well ventilated on warm, sunny days; leave 
the sashes off as long as is possible without injury to the plants. Keep 
the soil in a friable condition, and look carefully to any possible places 
where water can stand and freeze. If the frames seem too cold, bank 
up around them with coarse manure. 

Hotbeds. — Look up and repair the sashes. Save the horse-manure 
from day to day, rejecting dry litter, and piling up the droppings and 
urine-soaked bedding in thin layers to prevent violent heating. 

Lettuce in frames treat as advised for cabbage plants. 

Pruning should now be considered. Perhaps it is best to prune 
fruit-trees in March or April, but grapes and currants and gooseberries 
may be pruned now. January and February are good months in which 
to prune peach trees. Thin out the peach trees well, taking care to 
remove all the dead wood. If you have much pruning to do in apple, 
pear, or plum orchards, you will save time by utilizing the warm days 
now. Study well the different methods of pruning. Never let an 
itinerant pruner touch your trees until you are satisfied that he under- 
stands his business. 

Tools should now be inspected and repaired, and any new ones that 
are needed made or ordered. 

FEBRUARY 

Cabbage. — Sow seed of Jersey Wakefield in flats filled with light 
loamy soil, the last week of this month. Sow thinly, cover lightly, 
and place the boxes in a gentle hotbed or any warm, sunny situation. 
When the plants are strong, transplant them into flats 1J m - apart 



SEASONAL REMINDERS 505 

each way. As growth begins, gradually expose them to the open air 
on all favorable occasions. Late in March remove them to a cold- 
frame, and properly harden them off before setting them in the open 
ground. 

Celery. — We urgently advise every one who has a garden, large 
or small, to make a trial of the new celery-culture. You need, first, 
good plants. Get some seed of White Plume or Golden Self-blanch- 
ing, and sow it thickly in flats filled with fine loam. Cover by sifting 
a thin layer of sand or fine soil over it, and firm well. Keep in a mod- 
erately warm place, watering as needed, until plants appear. If you 
have a number of flats, they may be placed on top of one another. 
At the first sign of plant-growth, bring the flats gradually to the light. 
When the plants are 1^ or 2 in. high, transplant them into other flats, 
setting them in rows 2\ in. apart, the plants half an inch apart in 
the rows. Then set the flats in a coldframe until the plants are large 
enough to plant out in the open ground. 

Hotbeds for raising early plants should be made this month. Always 
break the manure up fine and tread it down well. Be sure to put 
enough in the center of beds, so that there will be no sagging. Fresh 
manure of hard-worked and well-fed horses, free from dry litter, is 
best. An addition of leaves used for bedding will serve to produce 
a more moderate but more lasting heat. Sheep-manure may also 
be added to the horse-manure, should there be a scant supply of the 
latter on hand. 

Onions. — We urgently advise giving the new onion-culture a trial. 
For seed, buy a packet or an ounce of Prizetaker, Spanish King, White 
Victoria, or some other large kind of globe onion. Sow the seed in 
flats, in a hotbed, or in a greenhouse late in the month, and trans- 
plant the onions to the open ground as soon as the latter is in working 
condition. Set the plants in rows 1 ft. apart and about 3 in. apart 
in the row. 

Plums. — Make a thorough inspection of all plum and cherry trees, 
wild and cultivated, for plum-knot. Cut and burn all the knots found. 
Remove all " mummy " plums, for they spread the fruit-rot. 

Rhubarb. — Give the plants in the garden a heavy dressing of fine 
old compost. If you wish a few early stalks, place kegs or boxes over 
some of the plants, and heap over them some heating horse-manure. 



506 MANUAL OF GARDENING 



MARCH 

Beets. — A few seeds may be sown in the hotbed. 

Cabbage, cauliflower, and celery seeds may be sown for the early crop. 

Egg-plants. — Seeds should be sown. Take care that the young 
plants are never stunted. 

Grafting may be done in favorable weather. Cherries and plums 
must be grafted early. Use liquid grafting-wax* in cold weather. 

Hotbeds may be made at any time, but do not grow impatient about 
the work, for there will be cold weather yet. Clean, fresh manure is 
necessary, and a layer 2 ft. thick should be tramped hard. When 
once started and the seeds sown, do not let the beds get too hot. Give 
them air on fine days and give the seedlings plenty of water. Use two 
thermometers — one to test the atmosphere and the other the heat 
of the soil. 

Lettuce should be sown in the hotbed for an early crop. 

Onion seed for the new onion-culture may be sown at the close of 
the month. 

Peas. — Sow now, if the ground can be worked. 

Peppers may be sown late in the month. 

Potatoes kept for seed must not be allowed to sprout. Keep them 
in a temperature near freezing point. Rub off the sprouts from 
potatoes kept for eating, and pick out all decayed specimens. 

Spinach. — Sow some seeds for an early crop. 

Tomato seeds may be sown in the hotbeds. 

APRIL 

Artichokes. — Sow the seeds for next year's crop. A deep, rich, 
sandy loam is best. Fork in a dressing of well-rotted manure around 
the old plants. 

Asparagus. — Spade in some good manure in the bed, and give 
the soil a thorough working before the crowns start. Sow seeds in the 
open ground for young plants for a new bed. 

Beans. — Limas may be started on sods in a hotbed or a coldframe 
towards the last of the month. 

Beets. — The ground should be prepared and the seed sown for 
beets for cattle as soon as the weather will permit. Put them in before 






SEASONAL REMINDERS 507 

planting corn. They will stand considerable cold weather, and should 
be planted early to get a start of the weeds. 

Blackberries should be pruned, the brush drawn off, piled, and 
burned. If it is necessary to stake them, try a wire trellis, the same 
as for grapes, putting on one wire 2\ ft. high. The young plants should 
be dug before the buds start. 

Cabbage seed may be sown in the open ground, in coldframes, or 
in pans or boxes in the house. Early varieties should be started at 
once. Cabbages like a rich and heavy loam, with good drainage. Give 
them all the manure you can get. 

Cauliflower seeds may be sown toward the last of the month. They 
should never have a check from the time the seed is sown until harvested. 

Carrot. — Sow the seed of early sorts, like Early Forcing, as soon 
as the ground can be worked. 

Celery. — Plan to grow celery by the new method. Plenty of 
manure and moisture are required to do this. Sow the seed in light, 
rich soil in the house, hotbed, coldframe, or open ground. Transplant 
the plants once before setting them in the field. Page 505. 

Cress. — Sow early and every two or three weeks. Watercress 
should be sown in damp soil or in streams. The outer edges of a hot- 
bed may also be utilized. Cress is often a profitable crop when rightly 
handled. 

Cucumber seeds may be sown on sods in the hotbed. 

Egg-plant. — Sow in the hotbed, and transplant when 2 in. high to 
other beds or pots. They must have good care, for a check in their 
growth means all the difference between profit and loss. 

Lettuce. — Sow the seeds in the hotbed, and in the open ground as 
soon as it can be worked. Plants sown a month ago should be trans- 
planted. 

Leek. — Sow the seeds in the open ground in drills 6 in. apart and 
1 in. deep, and when large enough, thin to 1 in. in the row. 

Mushmelon. — Plant seeds in sods in the hotbed. 

Parsnip. — Dig the roots before they grow and become soft and 
pithy. Seeds may be sown as soon as the ground is dry enough to 
work. 

Parsley. — Soak the seeds in warm water for a few hours, and sow 
in the open ground. 



508 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Peas. — Sow the seeds as soon as the ground can be worked. They 
will stand considerable cold and transplanting also. Time may be 
gained by sowing some seeds in moist sand in a box in the cellar and 
transplanting when well sprouted. Plant deep in light, dry soil ; cover 
an inch at first, and draw in the earth as the vines grow. 

Potatoes. — Plant early on rich soil free from blight and scab. For 
a very early crop, the potatoes may be sprouted before planting. 

Peppers. — Sow the seeds in the hotbed or in the boxes in the house. 

Radish seeds may be sown in the open ground or in the hotbed and 
the crop harvested from there. The small, round varieties are best 
for this purpose. 

Strawberries. — Give a good, thorough cultivation between the rows 
and then remove the mulch from the plants, placing it in the rows, 
where it will help to keep the weeds down. 

Salsify. — Sow the seeds as soon as the ground can be worked. 
Give the same care and cultivation as for carrots or parsnips. 

Spinach seeds must be sown early, and then every two weeks for 
a succession. Thin out and use the plants before they send up flower- 
stalks. 

Squashes. — Hubbards and summer squashes may be started on 
sods in the hotbed. 

Tomato. — Sow in the hotbed or in shallow boxes in the house. 
Try some of the yellow varieties ; they are the finest flavored of any. 

MAY 

Beans. — The bush sorts may be planted in the open ground, 
and limas in pots or sods in a coldframe or spent hotbed. Limas re- 
quire a long season to mature, and should be started early. 

Beets. — Sow for a succession. Transplant those started under 
glass. 

Cabbages always do best on a freshly turned sod, and should be 
set before the land has had time to dry after plowing. The secret of 
success in getting a large yield of cabbage is to start with rich land 
and put on all the manure obtainable. Clean out the hog yard for 
this purpose. 

Cucumbers. — Sow in the open ground toward the last of the month. 
A few may be started as advised for lima beans. 



SEASONAL REMINDERS 509 

Lettuce. — Sow for a succession, and thin to 4 in. in the rows. 

Melons. — Plant in the open ground toward the end of the month. 
It is useless to plant melons and other cucurbitaceous plants until 
settled weather has arrived. 

Onions. — Finish planting and transplanting, and keep all weeds 
down, both in the seed-bed and the open field. 

Peas. — Sow for a succession. 

Squashes. — Plant as advised for melons and cucumbers. They 
require a rich, well-manured soil. 

Strawberries. — Remove the blossoms from newly set plants. 
Mulch with salt hay or marsh hay or clean straw or leaves those that 
are to bear. Mulching conserves moisture, keeps the berries clean, 
and prevents weeds from growing. 

Sweet corn. — Plant early and late varieties, and by making two 
or three plantings of each, at intervals, a succession may be kept up 
all summer and fall. Sweet corn is delicious, and one can hardly have 
too much of it. 

Tomatoes. — Set some early plants by the middle of the month 
or earlier, if the ground is warm, and the season early and fair. They 
may be protected from the cold by covering with hay, straw, cloth, or 
paper, or even with earth. The main crop should not be set until the 
20th or 25th, or until all danger of frost is over. However, tomatoes 
will stand more chilly weather than is ordinarily supposed. 

JUNE 

Asparagus. — Cease cutting and allow the shoots to grow. Keep 
the weeds down and the soil well stirred. An application of a quick 
commercial fertilizer or of liquid manure will be beneficial. 

Beans. — Sow the wax sorts for succession. As soon as a crop is 
off, pull out the vines and plant the ground to late cabbage, turnips, 
or sweet corn. 

Beets. — Transplant in rows 1 to 3 ft. apart and 6 in. in the row. 

Cut off most of the top, water thoroughly, and they will soon start. 

- Cabbage and cauliflower. — Set plants for the late crop. Rich, 

newly turned sod and a heavy dressing of well-rotted manure go a long 

way toward assuring a good crop. 



510 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Cekry. — Set the main crop, and try the new method of setting the 
plants 7 in. apart each way, if .you have rich land and can irrigate, 
but not unless these conditions are present. Page 505. 

Cucumbers may yet be planted, if done early in the month. 

Currants. — Spray with Paris green for the currant worm until 
the fruit sets. Hellebore is good, but it is difficult to get it of good 
strength ; use it for all late spraying. 

Lettuce. — Sow for succession in a moist, cool, and partially shaded 
spot. The seed does not germinate well in hot weather. 

Lima beans should be hoed frequently, and started on the poles if 
they are contrary. 

Melons. — Cultivate often and watch for the bugs. A screen of 
closely woven wire or mosquito netting may be used to cover the vines, 
or tobacco dust sifted on thickly. 

Onions. — Keep free from weeds and stir the ground frequently 
and especially after every rain. 

Squashes. — Keep the ground well cultivated and look out for bugs. 
(See Melons.) Layer the vines and cover the joints with fresh soil, 
to prevent death of the vines from the attacks of the borer. 

Strawberries. — Plow up the old bed that has borne two crops, 
as it will usually not pay to keep it. Set the ground to late cabbage 
or some other crop. The young bed that has borne the first crop should 
have a thorough cultivation and the plow run close to the rows to 
narrow them to the required width. Pull up or hoe out all weeds and 
keep the ground clean the rest of the season. This applies with equal 
force to the newly set bed. A bed can be set late next month from 
young runners. Pinch off the end after the first joint, and allow it to 
root on a sod or in a small pot set level with the surface. 

Tomatoes. — For an early crop train to a trellis, pinch off all side 
shoots, and allow all the strength to go to the main stalk. They may 
also be trained to poles, the same as lima beans, and can be set closer 
if grown in this way. Spray with the bordeaux mixture for the 
blight, keep the foliage thinned and the vines off the ground. 

Turnips. — Sow for an early fall crop. 



SEASONAL REMINDERS 511 



JULY 

Beans. — Sow the wax sorts for a succession. 

Beets. — Sow Early Egyptian or Eclipse for young beets next fall. 

Blackberries. — Head back the young canes to 3 ft., and the laterals 
also when they get longer. They may be pinched with the thumb- 
nail and finger in a small patch, but this soon makes the fingers sore, 
and when there are many bushes to go over, it is better to use a pair 
of shears or a sharp sickle. 

Cabbage. — Set plants for the late crop. 

Corn. — Plant sweet corn for succession and late use. 

Cucumbers. — It is late to plant, but they may be put in for pickles 
if done before the Fourth. Cultivate those which are up, and keep 
an eye open for bugs. 

Currants. — Cover a few bushes with muslin or burlap before the 
fruit ripens, and you can eat currants in August. Use hellebore, 
rather than Paris green, for the last brood of currant worms, and apply 
it as soon as the worms appear. There is little danger in using it, 
even if the currants are ripe. 

Lettuce seed does not germinate well in hot weather. Sow in a 
moist, shaded position for a succession. 

Lima beans. — Hoe them frequently, and give assistance to get on 
the poles. 

Melons. — Watch for bugs, and apply tobacco dust freely around 
the plants. Keep them well cultivated. A light application of bone 
meal will pay. 

Peaches, pears, and plums should be thinned to secure fine fruit and 
to help sustain the vigor of the tree. Ripening the seed is what draws 
on the tree's vitality, and if the number of seeds can be reduced one- 
half or two -thirds, part of the strength required to ripen them will 
go into perfecting the fruit and seeds left, and add greatly to the fine 
appearance, flavor, and quality of the edible portion. 

Radishes. — Sow the early kinds for a succession, and toward the 
end of the month the winter sorts may be put in. 

Raspberries. — Pinch back the canes to 2\ ft., the same way as 
given for blackberries. 

Squashes. — Keep the ground well stirred, and use tobacco dust 



512 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

freely for bugs and beetles. Cover the joints with fresh soil, to guard 
against injury by the vine-borer. 

AUGUST 

Beets. — A last sowing of the early table sorts may be made for a 
succession. 

Cabbage. — Harvest the early crop, and give good cultivation to 
the main crop. Keep down the bugs and worms. 

Celery. — The latest crop may yet be set. Earlier set plants should 
be handled as they attain sufficient size. Common drain tiles are ex- 
cellent for blanching if one has them, and must be put on when the 
plants are about half grown. Hoe frequently to keep the plants 
growing. 

Onions. — Harvest as soon as the bulbs are well formed. Let them 
lie on the ground until cured, then draw to the barn floor or some 
other airy place and spread thinly. Market when you can get a good 
price, and the sooner the better. 

Tomatoes may be hastened in coloring by being picked just as they 
begin to color and placed in single layers in a coldframe or hotbed, 
where they can be covered with sash. 

SEPTEMBER 

In many parts of the North it is not too late to sow rye, or peas, 
or corn, to afford winter protection for orchards. As a rule, very late 
fall plowing for orchards is not advisable. Now is a good time to trim 
up the fence-rows and to burn the brush piles, in order to destroy the 
breeding places of rabbits, insects, and weeds. Cuttings of goose- 
berries and currants may be taken. Use only the wood of the current 
year's growth, making the cuttings about a foot long. Strip off the 
leaves, if they have not already fallen, tie the cuttings in large bundles, 
and bury them in a cold cellar, or in a sandy, well-drained knoll ; or 
if the cutting-bed is well prepared and well drained, they may be 
planted immediately, the bed being well mulched upon the approach 
of winter. September and October are good months in which to set 
orchards, provided the ground is well prepared and well drained, and 
is not too much exposed to sweeping winds. Wet lands should never 



SEASONAL REMINDERS 513 

be set in the fall ; and such lands, however, are not fit for orchards. 
Strawberries may still be set; also bush fruits. 

Seeds of various flowers may now be sown for winter bloom, if one 
has a conservatory or good window. Petunias, phloxes, and many 
annuals make good window plants. Quicker results are secured, 
however, if border plants of petunias and some other things are dug 
up just before frost and placed in pots or boxes. Keep them cool and 
shaded for a couple of weeks, cut down the tops, and they will send 
up a vigorous and floriferous growth. Winter roses should now be 
in place in the beds or in pots. 

There will be odd days when one can go to the woods and fields and 
collect roots of wild herbs and shrubs for planting in the yard or along 
the unused borders of the garden. 

OCTOBER 

Asparagus. — Old plantations should now be cleaned off, and the 
tops removed at once. This is a good time to apply manure to the beds. 
For young plantations, which may be started now as well as in spring, 
select a warm soil and sunny exposure, and give each plant plenty 
of room. We like to set them in rows 5 ft. apart and at least 2 ft. 
apart in the rows. 

Cabbages. — The heads that will winter best are those just fully 
formed, not the over-ripe ones. For family use, bury an empty barrel 
in a well-drained spot, and fill it with good heads. Place a lot of dry 
leaves on top, and cover the barrel so that it will shed rain. Or, pile 
some cabbages in a corner of the barn floor and cover them with enough 
straw to prevent solid freezing. Pages 159, 470. 

Cabbage-plants, started from seed last month, should be pricked 
out in cold-frames, putting about 600 to the ordinary sash and setting 
them quite deep. 

Chicory. — Dig what is wanted for salad, and store it in sand in a 
dry cellar. 

Endive. — Blanch by gathering up the leaves and tying them lightly 
at the tips. 

General garden management. — The only planting that can be done 
in open ground at this time is restricted to rhubarb, asparagus, and 
2l 



514 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

perhaps onion-sets. Begin to think about next year's planting, and 
to make arrangements for the manure that will be needed. Often 
you can purchase it now to good advantage, and haul it while the roads 
are yet good. Clean up and plow the ground when the crops are 
harvested. 

Lettuce. — Plants to be wintered over should be set in frames like 
cabbage-plants. 

Onions. — Plant sets of Extra Early Pearl, or some other hardy 
kind, in the same fashion as in early spring. They are likely to winter 
well, and will give an early crop of fine bunching onions. For the 
North, fall sowing of onion-seed cannot be recommended. 

Parsley. — Lift some plants and set them in a coldframe 4 or 5 
in. apart, or in a box filled with good soil, and place in a light cellar 
or under a shed. 

Pears. — Pick the winter sorts just before there is danger from 
freezing. Put them in a cool, dark place, where they will neither 
mold nor shrivel. To hasten ripening, they may be brought into a 
warm room as wanted. 

Rhubarb. — If plants are to be set or replanted this fall, enrich the 
ground with a superabundance of fine old stable-manure, and give 
each plant a few feet of space each way. In order to have fresh pie- 
plant in winter, dig up some of the roots and plant them in good 
soil in a barrel placed in the cellar. 

Sweet-potatoes. — Dig them when ripe after the first frost. Cut 
off the vines, and turn the potatoes out with a potato-fork or plow. 
Handle them carefully to prevent bruising. Only sound, well-ripened 
roots are in proper condition to be wintered over. 

NOVEMBER 

Asparagus. — Manure before winter sets in. 

Beets. — They keep best in pits. Some may be kept in the cellar 
for use during winter, but cover them with sand or sods to prevent 
shriveling. 

Blackberries. — Cut away the old wood and mulch the roots. 
Tender sorts should be laid down and lightly covered with soil at the 
tips. 



SEASONAL REMINDERS 515 

Carrots. — Treat as advised for beets. 

Celery. — Dig up the stalks, leaving the roots on, and stand them 
close together in a narrow trench, tops just even with the ground-level. 
Gradually cover them with boards, earth, and manure. Another way 
is to set them upright upon the floor of a damp cellar or root-house, 
keeping the roots moist and the tops dry. Celery can stand some 
frost, but not exposure to less than 22° F. The stalks intended for 
use before Christmas may in most localities be left outdoors, to be used 
as wanted. Should cold weather set in early, they will need covering 
in some way. Page 475. 

Orchard management. — ■ Young trees should have a mound of earth 
raised around the stem as a support and protection against mice, etc. 
Small and lately planted trees may have stakes set beside them, and 
be tied to the stakes with a broad band. Apple and pear trees may 
yet be planted. Trim superfluous or unhealthy wood out of the old 
orchards. 

Spinach. — Cover the beds lightly with leaves or litter before win- 
ter sets in. 

Strawberries. — Soon it will be time to mulch the beds. Provide 
marsh hay, or other coarse litter, free from weed-seeds, and when the 
ground has frozen an inch or so, spread it all over the surface thinly 
and evenly. 

DECEMBER 

Cabbages. — Plants in coldframes should be aired freely and kept 
cool. Heads intended for winter and spring use, if not yet taken in or 
protected from severe freezing, must now be cared for. Do not cover 
them too deeply, nor store them in too warm a place. 

Carrots. — Store them in cellars or pits. If in cellars, keep the 
roots covered with sand or sod, to prevent wilting. 

General garden management. — Begin now to make your plans for 
next season's work. Carefully study up the matter of rotation, also 
that of feeding your crops in the most effective and economical manner. 
Repair frames, sashes, and tools. Clear up the garden and premises. 
Underdrain where needed. Beds for early vegetables should be thrown 
up in high, narrow ridges, with deep furrows between. This will 
enable you to plant them several days or weeks earlier than otherwise. 



516 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Kale. — In very exposed or northern locations cover it lightly 
with coarse litter. 

Onions. — For winter storage select only well-ripened, perfectly 
dry bulbs. Store them in a dry, airy place, not in the cellar. They 
may be spread out thinly on the floor, away from the walls, allowed to 
freeze solid, and then covered several feet deep with hay or straw. 

Parsnips. — Take up some roots for winter use and store them in 
sand in the cellar. 

Strawberry-beds should be given their winter covering of marsh 
hay, etc., as soon as the ground is frozen solid. 



SUGGESTIONS AND REMINDERS. — II. FOR THE SOUTH 

JANUARY 

Annuals. — All kinds of hardy annuals and perennials, such as 
alyssum, snapdragon, foxglove, hollyhock, phlox, poppy, pansy, 
lobelia, candytuft, sweet pea, Chinese pink, sweet william, larkspur, 
foliage cinerarias, centaurea, mignonette, and many others of the same 
class may be sown. Most of them should be sown thinly and where 
they are intended to flower, as they transplant poorly in this latitude. 

C annas, caladiums, perennial phloxes, chrysanthemums, and verbenas 
may be taken up, divided, and replanted. 

Roses may be planted in quantities. Let the ground intended for 
them have a thorough dressing of manure. Occasionally a plant may 
be taken up and divided. The hybrid varieties may now be layered. 
This is done as follows : Select a shoot and bend it flat upon the ground ; 
hold it in both hands, having a distance of about 6 in. between them ; 
keep the left hand firm, and with the right give the shoot a sharp 
twist; now cover it with 4 in. of earth and tie the free end to an 
upright stake. 

Asparagus beds should be liberally manured. New beds should now 
be made. Set the plants 6 in. deep. Sow seed now. 

Beets and all hardy vegetables (carrots, parsnips, turnips, rutabagas, 
kohlrabi, spinach, lettuce, herbs, etc.) may now be sown, planted, or 
transplanted. 



SEASONAL REMINDERS 517 

Cabbage plants should be set out on heavily manured ground. 
Sow seed of Early Summer for a later supply. 

Fruits. — If possible, all planting and transplanting of fruit-trees 
and grape-vines should be finished this month. Pruning should be 
completed as soon as possible, and preparation made to protect the 
blossoms of tender fruits next month. Set out strawberry-plants, and 
during dry weather run the cultivator through all old beds that are 
at all weedy. It is a good plan, where practicable, to mulch the beds. 
Here, pine-straw can be had plentifully for the purpose. Examine 
peach trees for borers. Raspberries and blackberries should be pruned 
now if the work is not already done. Cuttings of Le Conte pears, 
Marianna plums, grape-vines, and pomegranates should be put in at 
once if they have heretofore been forgotten. Root-grafting should be 
progressing rapidly ; this is the best time for this important work. 

Onion seeds. — Sow at once, and plant sets as soon as possible. 

Peas. — Sow early and late varieties. The late varieties succeed 
best if sown at this season. 

Seasonable work. — This is a good month to obtain canes for staking 
peas, tomatoes, and beans, hauling manure, making repairs, and ex- 
amining tools, etc. As the fall crop is harvested, the land should be 
prepared for another crop. Tile-draining is now is order. Prepare 
frames to cover with canvas for use next month. 

Sweet-potatoes. — A few may be bedded in a frame from which to 
obtain "draws" for setting out about March 15. 

Tomatoes, egg-plants, and peppers. — Sow now on a slight hotbed. 
When the plants come up, all the air possible should be given during 
the day. They can be raised without heat, but at this season this plan 
would better be attempted only by the skillful. 

FEBRUARY 

Asters, cannas, dahlias, heliotropes, lobelias, petunias, pyrethrums, 
ricinus, salvias, and verbenas are best sown in a coldframe, where they 
can have some protection from heavy rain. 

Cannas should be transplanted now. 

Chrysanthemums must be planted in well-manured ground in a 
position where water can be readily supplied to them. 



518 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Dahlias may be taken up and divided as soon as they begin growth. 

Gladiolus and tuberose bulbs should be planted now. It is a good 
plan to extend the planting through March and April. 

Pansies. — Plant them out in the beds where they are to flower. 

Routine work. — Sodding should now proceed rapidly. If sods can- 
not be obtained, the ground may be planted with Bermuda grass. 
Plant small pieces of the grass a foot apart and water them if the 
weatjier is dry, and they will grow rapidly. Hedges should be cleared 
up and put in good shape. All planting of trees and shrubs should be 
finished this month. All pruning of trees must be done early in 
the month. Young roses cannot be set too early in February. They 
thrive best when planted in fall. Roll the drives and repair them when 
necessary. The lawn will now require constant care, and the mower 
should be used before the grass becomes 1| m ' high. 

Bush-beans may be planted February 14. On alluvial land it is best 
to plant them on slight rises as a protection against the rains which 
sometimes occur toward the end of the month. If frost should 
threaten just as the beans begin to peep out, cover them an inch deep 
with the plow or hand cultivator. Sow Early Mohawk first, and at 
the end of the month sow Early Valentine ; a week later sow the wax 
varieties. 

Cabbage. — Sow early varieties, such as Early Summer, Early 
Drumhead, and Early Flat Dutch. Etampes, Extra Early Express, 
and Winnigstadt sown for small heads in the order named have done 
very well in southern Louisiana. The earlier sown plants should 
be transplanted as often as convenient. Should worms cause trouble, 
dust the plants with a mixture of one part of pyrethrum powder 
to six of fine dust. 

Carrots, celery, beets, endive, kohlrabi, onion sets, parsley, parsnips, 
radishes and purple-top turnips must now be sown. 

Corn. — Plant Extra Early Adams, Yellow Canada, Stowell Ever- 
green, and White Flint toward the middle of the month. Sow again 
a week later, and again after another week. If the first two sowings 
fail, the last one will give the early crop. 

Cucumbers. — Sow and protect with small boxes during cold days 
and nights, or sow in pots or on sods. Protect the seedlings with sashes 
or canvas, and plant them out late. 



SEASONAL BE MINDERS 519 

Lettuce. — Sow seeds and transplant the plants on hand. This 
crop requires a soil well supplied with plant-food. 

Melons. — Plant seeds in the same manner as advised for cu- 
cumbers. 

Okra. — Sow seeds on sods and set out the plants next month. 

Peas. — Sow seeds of a number of varieties. 

Peppers and egg-plants, if not sown last month, should be sown now. 
Sow them under glazed sashes and keep close. When the plants appear, 
give some air, and increase it according to the weather. If a large 
number of plants is required, the sowing may be delayed until next 
month. Should flea-beetles trouble you, use plenty of bordeaux on 
egg-plants. 

Potatoes, Irish. — The main crop should be planted as early as 
possible. Standard varieties are Early Rose, Peerless, and Burbank. 

Strawberries. — Run the cultivator through them at least once 
every three weeks; if they are to be mulched, collect the necessary 
material. Strawberries planted in February seldom yield much of 
a crop. 

Sweet-potatoes, can now be bedded and protected with canvas, or 
a row or two of whole tubers may be planted for " draws " and vines. 

Tomatoes in frames should be given all the air and light possible and 
plenty of room- if protected with canvas, do not allow the plants to 
crowd. 

MARCH 

Beans. — Sow all varieties for a fall crop. As soon as the plants 
appear, the cultivator must be run through the crop, and kept going 
as often as necessary. 

Corn. — Continue to plant ; and we recommend harrowing the 
patch as soon as the young corn appears. It is generally planted in 
hills 3 or 4 ft. apart, but better results will be obtained by planting 
in drills and leaving one stalk every 12 in. 

Cucumbers. — Sow in hills 4 ft. apart, using a liberal quantity of 
seed to each hill. When the plants come up, thin them to about six 
in the hill. When the plants begin to get rough leaves, pull out one 
or two more from each hill. Striped cucumber-beetles are sometimes 
very numerous, and in order to get a stand of plants it is necessary to 



520 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

go through the patch early every morning and sprinkle all the hills 
with air-slaked lime. 

Egg-plants. — Toward the end of the month the plants growing in 
frames may be transplanted to their fruiting quarters. Seed may be 
sown outside after March 15 ; sooner if a warm and sheltered spot is 
selected. 

Lettuce. — Sow in drills, and when the plants are large enough, thin 
to a foot apart. If transplanted at this season, they often go to seed. 

Okra. — A sowing may be made now, but the main planting would 
best be deferred until after March 15. Sow in drills 3 ft. apart and 
thin the plants to 18 in. apart in the drills. 

Peas. — Early varieties may be sown ; it is now too late to sow tall- 
growing kinds. 

Peppers. — Treat as advised for egg-plants. 

Potatoes, Irish. — It is not too late to plant them, but the sooner 
they are planted the better. The crop planted in February should be 
harrowed as soon as the shoots begin to come up, and when the rows 
can be fairly seen, the cultivator must be set to work to keep down 
weeds and grass. 

Squashes. — Plant seed in hills 6 ft. apart. The directions for 
planting melons may be followed. The same remarks apply to pump- 
kins and other vegetables of this kind. 

Sweet-potatoes. — If slips or vines are at hand, they may be planted 
late in the month for the earliest tubers. The whole potatoes may 
be planted on a ridge to yield vines for later planting. 

Strawberries. — The mulching of beds or rows should be no longer 
delayed, if clean and plentiful fruit is wanted. 

Tomatoes. — About March 15 the frame plants may go to their 
fruiting quarters. It is necessary to use some judgment in this mat- 
ter, as they may be killed or injured by an April frost. Seed may be 
sown in the open ground for plants for late fruiting. Set the plants 4 ft. 
apart each way. 

APRIL 

Alternantheras should go out now. 

Annuals of all kinds may still be sown where they are to flower, as 
they transplant with difficulty at this season. 



SEASONAL REMINDERS 521 

Coleuses. — Plant out in the beds now. Cuttings root readily, 
simply requiring to be stuck in. 

Beans of all kinds can be planted, limas especially. 

Beets. — ■ Make another sowing. 

Cabbage plants obtained from spring sowings should be set out as 
soon as fit. The ground requires to be very rich to carry this crop. 

Cucumbers. — These can be sown anywhere now. 

Corn. — Make a sowing to yield roasting ears to come in after that 
sown last month. 

Okra. — Sow in drills 3 or 4 ft. apart. 

Peas. — Make a sowing of early varieties for the last time. 

Squash {bush) and pumpkin may now be planted. 

Tomatoes should be got out to their fruiting quarters as early in 
the month as possible. Let them be set at least 4 ft. apart each way. 

MAY 

Beans. — Plant a few more bush and pole beans. 

Celery may now be started. The bed or box needs plenty of water, 
and should be shaded from sun. 

Lettuce requires careful handling to encourage it to germinate. 
It is best sown in a box and kept shaded and moist. 

Melons, cucumbers, squashes, and pumpkins may be sown. 

Radishes. — Sow the yellow and white summer varieties. 

Remarks. — It is a constant struggle with weeds throughout this 
month, and the cultivator and plow are ever going. As the land be- 
comes vacant, sow corn or plant sweet-potatoes — draws or vines. 
Sow some late Italian cauliflower. Let the orchard have constant 
and thorough cultivation, and remove all unnecessary growth from 
the trees as soon as they appear. Be always on the lookout for borers. 
Keep the strawberries as free of grass and coco, or knob-grass, as 
possible. 

JUNE 

Beans. — All kinds may now be sown. 
Cauliflower. — Sow the Italian kinds. 

Corn. — Make a planting at the beginning of the month and again 
at the end. 



522 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Cucumbers. — Plant a few more hills. The plants at this season 
must be given plenty of water. 

Endive. — Sow, and attend to the tying up of the plants that are 
of sufficient size. 

Melons. — Sow for a succession a few more water and muskmelons. 

Okra may still be sown. 

Radishes. — Sow the summer varieties now. 

Squashes and pumpkins may yet be sown. 

Sweet-potato vines may now be set out in quantities. 

Tomatoes. — About the middle of the month sow for the fall crop. 

JULY 

Beans. — Bush and pole beans may be planted towards the end of 
the month. 

Cabbage and cauliflower may now be sown, but the main sowing should 
be deferred until next month. 

Carrots. — A sowing should be made. 

Celery. — Sow and transplant what plants there may be on hand. 

Cucumbers. — These may be sown now for pickling. 

Endive. — Transplant and sow. 

Grapes should be kept well tied to trellis, and unnecessary growth 
removed, so that the wood may have the chance of becoming thoroughly 
ripened. If the cultivator and plow are not used judiciously, a second 
growth will be started, which is not desirable. 

Lettuce. — The seed requires to be sprouted before being sown, and 
if the sowing is done on a dry day the drills should be watered. 

Radishes. — Sow the summer kinds. 

Strawberries. — Keep the beds clean of weeds and grass. 

Tomatoes. — Make a sowing early in the month, or, what is much 
better, take cuttings from plants still in bearing. 

Turnips. — Sow a few after a shower towards the end of the month. 

Remarks. — Much cannot be done this month, as the weather is 
hot and dry, but the opportunity should not be lost for killing weeds 
and preparing for the planting season, which is now rapidly drawing 
near. 



SEASONAL REMINDERS 523 

AUGUST 

Artichokes. — Seed of the Green Globe may be sown now and large 
plants obtained by spring. The seed-bed requires to be shaded. 

Bush beans, beets, pole beans, carrots, celery, endive, kohlrabi, lettuce, 
mustard, Black Spanish and Rose China radishes, parsley, turnips, 
rutabagas, and salad plants of all kinds may now be sown. The seed 
should be sown on small ridges, adaptable to the kind of plants, 
for level culture is not successful in the vegetable garden in this section. 

Broccoli should be more grown, for it is hardier than the cauli- 
flower. Many cannot tell the difference between the two. Sow now. 

Cabbages must be sown by the middle of the month. Make the 
ground very rich and shade the seed-bed, keeping it moist during the 
whole of the time. 

Cauliflower should also be sown. 

Potatoes, Irish, should be planted by the middle of the month, if 
possible. Plant only those that have sprouted, and instead of planting 
on top of the ridge set in the furrow and cover 2 in. deep ; as the 
potatoes grow, work more soil down to them. 

Salsify. — Sow now or early next month. 

Shallots. — Plant them now. 

Squash. — Bush kinds may be planted now at any time. 

Sweet-potatoes. — Vines may still be set out, with prospects of 
harvesting a fair crop. 

Tomatoes. — If short of plants, cut off good-sized limbs from bear- 
ing plants and plant them deep. Keep them moist, and they will 
root in a few days. Do this just before it rains. 

SEPTEMBER 

Annuals of the hardy class may be sown this month : the following 
list will assist in making a selection : Calliopsis, candytuft, calendulas, 
canterbury bells, columbine, corn-flower, daisies, forget-me-nots, 
gaillardia, godetia, larkspur, Limnanthes Douglasii, mignonette, pansies, 
Phlox Drummondii, primroses, poppies of all kinds, Saponaria Cala- 
brica, Silene pendula, sweet williams, and sweet peas. 

Bulbs. — Study the catalogues and make out your wants, for it 
is nearing planting time. 



524 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Lilies. — If success is required of the St. Joseph's or Virgin lily 
(L. candidum), it must be planted right away. 

Perennials and biennials should be sown early this month. They 
have two good growing months ahead of them yet to make considerable 
progress. The seed-bed will require shade during the middle of the 
day until the young plants come up; frequent weedings will be re- 
quired, as coco has not yet quit growing, and winter weeds are now 
putting in an appearance. 

Remarks. — All plants used for salad purposes may be sown this 
month. The ground between the rows of growing crops should be 
kept in a fine, friable condition. Vegetable seeds of all kinds should 
always be sown on slight ridges on all but very sandy soils. If the 
seed is sown on a level bed, as practiced at the North, the ground will 
become as hard as a turnpike road should a heavy rain occur ; and 
should this shower come along before the plants are up, a crust a 
quarter of an inch deep will be formed, and the plants will never see 
daylight. Sown on a ridge they come all right, as the water gradually 
drains away, leaving the top of the ridge loose and soft. 



OCTOBER 

All spring flower seeds should be sown in boxes or trays in the con- 
servatory, and all spring bulbs should be planted. The hyacinth, 
narcissus, tulip and anemone, ranunculus and various lily bulbs, 
will bloom in good season planted at this time. The bedding plants 
should be carefully watched, so that any attack of aphis may be 
treated immediately. Sweet peas may be planted the first of this 
month, although they are commonly sown in September. A rich 
spot should be selected for them. This is the time to make the new 
lawn. The soil should be thoroughly stirred and well pulverized, 
mixing in a good dressing of commercial fertilizer, or, if one prefers it, 
a mixture which may be made at home, consisting of cotton-seed 
meal, acid phosphate, and sulfate of potash, at the rate of 1000 lb., 
300 lb., and 100 lb. respectively, per acre. A rich, well-rotted com- 
post, as a top dressing, would also be highly beneficial. Roses pruned 
late in September or early this month will produce fine winter blooms. 

In the garden this is a busy month ; some of the winter vegetables 



SEASONAL REMINDERS 525 

are growing, and others should be sown. The bud artichokes should 
be separated and set fully 3 ft. apart. Onions may still be sown in 
the early part of the month, and shallots should be divided and set. 
Some beans may be risked, and English peas sown for winter crop. 
A few cauliflowers may be tried and cucumbers planted in pots for 
the hotbeds next month. The following vegetables should be sown: 
Carrots, corn salad, chervil, Brussels sprouts, broccoli, beets, endive, 
kohlrabi, kale, lettuce, leeks, mustard, parsley, parsnip, radish, 
roquette, spinach, Swiss chard, salsify. Some cabbage and a few 
cauliflowers should be added to the list. Turnips should be sown for 
succession every two weeks until April or May. The celery should be 
kept growing and banking up commenced. 

This is an excellent time to plant the new strawberry bed. Make 
the bed rich with well-rotted manure and select good, healthy sets. 
The Michel's Early and Cloud are probably the most popular va- 
rieties for general planting, and should be set in alternating rows. 

NOVEMBER 

Flower seeds and bulbs may be planted this month of the same 
varieties as in October. Cuttings of all the herbaceous plants should 
be made and potted, for use in the house and for the borders next 
season. The coldframes should also be put in order. Some of the 
bulbs for winter forcing should be selected and potted. One of the 
best Louisiana gardeners recommends the following treatment : 
Select good, strong bulbs and plant them in rich, light soil, in 5-in. 
pots, covering them about half an inch. Water well and bury the pots 
6 or 8 in. deep in the ground, leaving them there about five weeks, 
when the bulbs will be found to be well rooted. From this time gradu- 
ally expose to the light, and they will soon put forth blooms. 

The same vegetables may be sown as for October, and the late cab- 
bage seed planted. The Flat Dutch and Drumhead strains are prime 
favorites. New sowings of peas, turnips, mustard, and radishes should 
be made, and the hotbeds prepared and set out to cucumbers. Too 
much care cannot be taken that the manure should be in the best con- 
dition possible, so that a good supply of heat may be depended upon. 
The cucumbers planted last month will be ready now for setting in the 
hotbeds, and a winter crop forced. 



526 MANUAL OF GARDENING 

Orchard and vineyard planting. — This is the time to prepare land. 
That on which a late crop of cowpeas has grown is well suited for the 
purpose, and should be plowed deeply and well worked over. Towards 
the last of the month it should be cultivated again, in order to be ready 
for the trees next month. 

DECEMBER 

Lawns and yards need watching this month, and attention should 
be paid to the old leaves and fall rubbish, which makes the yard look 
untidy. A good place for the leaves is the compost heap. Hedges 
should be put in shape and the surface drains kept open. Shrubs 
and roses should be pruned for an early supply of flowers. The Ca- 
mellia Japonicas are now in bloom, and care should be taken that the 
small branches are not torn off, instead of being cut properly. Many 
of these most beautiful of southern ornamental trees have been ruined 
by careless plucking of flowers. 

Garden and orchard. — Many of the fall vegetables may be sown this 
month and others sown for a succession. Peas, spinach, roquette, 
radishes, lettuce, endive, and some Early York cabbage should also be 
sown. In the old spent hotbeds, tomatoes, peppers, and egg-plants 
may be started ; there will not be enough heat to hurry them, and 
good, strong stocky plants will be secured if care is taken. Irish 
potatoes may be risked, should there be a favorable time for planting 
during the latter part of the month. Usually they are planted in 
January. The chances are about equal should they be planted late 
this month. Nuts of all kinds, both for budding and otherwise, 
should be planted. Some of the best Louisiana pecans are said to 
come true from seed, and may be sown where they are intended to 
grow. 



INDEX 



The flowering annuals, being mostly in alphabetical list (pp. 243-260), are 
not indexed here. 



Abelia grandiflora, 306. 

abies species, 335, 336. 

Abobra viridiflora, 311. 

abutilons, 351. 

acacia, rose, 300. 

acalypha, 230. 

acer, species, 322, 323, 330. 

Achillea Ptarmica, 269, 273. 

achyranthes, 236, 344. 

aconites, 273. 

actinidia, 216, 308, 316. 

adiantums, 372. 

adlumia, 310. 

Adonis vernalis, 273. 

aesculus species, 293, 323. 

African lily, 351. 

agapanthus, 351. 

agave, 364. 

Agrostemma Coronaria, 274. 

Agrostis nebulosa, 245. 

ailanthus, shoots of, 56. 

Ajuga reptans, 267. 

akebia, 216, 308, 316. 

alder, 293, 323. 

alliums, 289. 

almond, 415. 

alpine plants, 232. 

alstremeria, 352. 

alternanthera, 235, 237, 239. 

Althaea frutex, 297. 

Althaea rosea, 271. 

Alyssum saxatile, 267. 

amarantus, 230. 

amaryllis, 352. 

Atnelanchier Canadensis, 293. 

ammoniacal carbonate of copper, 197. 

ampelopsis species, 308, 309, 314. 

andromeda, 299, 306. 

anemone, 264, 265, 269, 273, 274, 353. 

anise, 460. 

anise-tree, 306. 

annuals for bedding, 249. 

annuals that bloom after frost, 248. 



annuals by color, 246. 
annuals, cultivation of, 241. 
annuals listed by height, 251. 
annuals for ribbon-beds, 248. 
annuals, distances apart, 256. 
Anthemis coronaria, 344. 
Anthemis Kelwayi, 274. 
Anthemis tinctoria, 271. 
Antigonon leptopus, 313. 
aphis, 198, 200. 
Apios tuberosa, 313. 
apple, culture of, 416. 
apple-maggot, 199. 
apple-scab, 207, 417. 
apricot, culture of, 420. 
aquarium, 348. 
aquatic plants, 230. 
aquilegias, 267, 269, 274. 
Arabis albida, 265. 
Arabis alpina, 274. 
Aralia Sieboldii, 230, 354. 
araucaria, 344, 354. 
arbor vita?, 221, 333, 336. 
Arbutus Unedo, 306. 
architect's garden, 12. 
ardisia, 306. 
aristolochia, 317. 
Arnebia echioides, 274. 
arsenate of lead formula, 193. 
artemisias, 273, 365. 
Artemisia Stelleriana, 263. 
artichoke, 462, 463. 
Aruncus Sylvester, 264. 
Arundo Donax, 46, 264. 
Asclepias tuberosa, 264, 274. 
ashes, 111. 
ash, mountain, 329. 
ash trees, 324, 330. 
asparagus, 461. 
asparagus beetle, 199. 
Asparagus medeoloides, 401. 
Asparagus plumosus and tenuissimus, 
317, 344. 



527 



528 



INDEX 



asparagus rust, 208. 
Asparagus Sprengeri, 340. 
aspen, 326. 
asperula, 269. 
aspidistra, 340. 
asters, native, 264, 274, 275. 
Astilbe Japonica, 269. 
Aubrietia deltoidea, 265. 
""aucuba, 344. 
auricula, 354. 
azalea, culture of, 355. 
azalea species, 293, 305, 306. 

Baccharis halimifolia, 291, 293. 

Bacterium tumefaciens, 180. 

balm, 460. 

bamboos, 230, 264. 

Baptisia tinctoria, 264. 

basil, 460. 

baskets, hanging, 348. 

basswood, 329. 

bay-tree, 306. 

bean, 459, 463. 

bedding, 228. 

beech, 324. 

beet, 456, 466. 

begonias, 356. 

belladonna lily, 287, 352. 

Bellis perennis, 265. 

Benzoin odoriferum, 293. 

Berberis Aquifolium, 293. 

Berberis Japonica, 306. 

Berberis Thunbergii, 52, 221, 292 293 
306. 

Berberis vulgaris, 51, 293. 

Bermuda buttercup, 384. 

Bermuda-grass, 80. 

betula species, 293, 323, 324. 

bignonia species, 314, 315. 

billbergia, 344. 

biota, 336. 

birds, 16. 

bitternut, 325. 

bitter-sweet, 315. 

bitter-sweet, false, 317. 

blackberries, laying down, 138. 

blackberry, culture of, 420. 

blackberry, disease of, 212. 

blackberry insects, 205. 

black-rot, 209. 

bladder nut, 302, 303. 



bleeding-heart, 267, 276. 

blister-mite, 199. 

blood as fertilizer, 112. 

bloodroot, 265. 

blue beech, 324. 

blue-grass, 78. 

Bocconia cordata, 263. 

bog plants, 230. 

bolting trees, 149. 

boltonias, 275. 

boneblack, 113. 

bone, ground, 113. 

bordeaux mixture, 196. 

borders, making, 74, 222. 

borers, 199, 417. 

bougainvillea, 318. 

Boussingaultia baselloides, 313, 344.. 

bouvardia, 344. 

box, 293, 306. 

box-elder, 323. 

boxthorn, 315. 

bridge-grafting, 148. 

Bridgeman, mentioned, 2. 
broccoli, 467. 

Bromus brizaeformis, 245. 

brooks, treatment of, 24, 58, 65, 232; 

broom, 306. 

brussels sprouts, 467. 

buckthorn, 221, 299. 

budding, 151. 

bud-moth, 200. 

buffalo berry, 302. 

Buist, mentioned, 2. 

bulbocodium, 289. 

bulbs, culture of, 281. 

bulbs in window-garden, 345. 

burdock, ornamental, 3. 

Burnette, F. H., quoted, 501. 

burning bush, 296. 

button-bush, 294. 

buttercups, tuberous, 289. 

butternut, 325. 

buttonwood, 326. 

Buxus sempervirens, 293. 

cabbage, culture, 457, 468. 
cabbage, storing, 159, 470, 513, 515. 
cabbage diseases, 208, 469. 
cabbage insects, 200, 457, 469. 
cabbage maggots,. 187, 201, 469. 
cactus, 358. 



INDEX 



529 



caladium, 230, 359. 
calceolaria, 360. 
calendars, 501. 
calla, 360. 
Calla palustris, 264. 
Callicarpa Americana, 305. 
callirrhoe, 269. 

Calycanthus floridus, 293, 305. 
camassia, 289. 
camellias, 306, 361. 
campanulas, 269, 272, 275. 
candytuft, perennial, 265, 277. 
canker-worm, 201, 417. 
cannas, 361. 
capsicum, 491. 
Capsicum frutescens, 306. 
caragana species, 294. 
caraway, 460. 

carbolic acid emulsion, 194. 
carbonate of copper, 197. 
cardinal flower, 272. 
cardiospermum, 310. 
carex for ground cover, 86. 
carnation rust, 208. 
carnations, 363. 

carpet-bedding, mentioned, 7, 30, 227. 
carpet-beds described, 234. 
Carpinus Americana, 324. 
carrot, 456, 471. 
carya species, 325. 

Caryopteris Mastacanthus, 291, 294, 305 
caryota, 385. 
case-bearers, 201. 
Cassia Marilandica, 264. 
castanea species, 294, 324. 
catalpa species, 324, 330. 
catnip, 460. 
cats, 16. 

cat-tail, 232, 264. 
cauliflower, 457, 471. 
cauliflower diseases, 208. 
cauliflower insects, 200. 
ceanothus, 294, 305. 
cedar, 336. 
cedrus species, 336. 
Celastrus scandens, 216. 
celastrus species, 317. 
celeriac, 472. 
celery, 473. 
cellared stock, 290. 
cellars, 158, 475. 
2m 



Celtis occidentalis, 324, 330. 

Centrosema Virginiana, 311. 

century plants, 38, 364. 

cephalanthus, 291, 294. 

cephalotaxus, 336. 

Cercidiphyllum Japonicum, 324. 

Cercis Canadensis, 324, 330. 

cereus, 358. 

chafer, rose, 206. 

chamaBcyparis species, 333, 336. 

chamserops, 306, 385. , 

chamomile, 271. 

chard, 475. 

cherry, cxilture, 422. 

cherry diseases, 211. 

cherry, ornamental, 327. 

cherry trees, shapes of, 43, 44. 

chervil, 476. 

chestnut, culture of, 433. 

chestnut disease, 208. 

chickens in gardens, 178. 

chickory, 476. 

Chilopsis linearis, 305. 

China-berry, 330. 

Chinese sacred lily, 289, 383. 

chinquapin, 294. 

Chionanthus Virginica, 294, 305. 

chionodoxa, 289. 

chrysanthemums, 365. 

chrysanthemums, hardy, 273. 

chrysanthemum disease, 209. 

Chrysanthemum frutescens, 365. 

chrysanthemum protection, 337. 

Chrysanthemum uliginosum, 272, 280. 

cineraria, 367. 

Cineraria maritima, 235. 

cinnamon vine, 313. 

cinquefoil, 299. 

Citrus trifoliata, 221, 306. 

cives, 477. 

Cladrastis tinctoria, 324. 

clary, 460. 

Claytonia Virginica, 265. 

clematis, 216, 275, 310, 311, 314, 367. 

Clethra alnifolia, 294, 306. 

Cleyera Japonica, 306. 

climbing plants, 307. 

clothes-post, 55. 

club-root, 208, 469. 

Cobbett, mentioned, 2. 

cobnuts, 433. 



530 



INDEX 



Coboea scandens, 344. 

Coccinea Indica, 311. 

Cocos Weddelliana, 385. 

Codiamm, 369. 

Codlin-moth, 201, 417. 

Coffee tree, 325. 

Coix Lachrytna, 245. 

colchicum, 284. 

coldframes, 164. 

cold storage, 160. 

coleus, 368. 

collards, 476. 

colocasia, 230, 359. 

coltsfoot for banks, 216. 

columbines, 267, 269, 274. 

Colutea arborescens, 294. 

comfrey, 216. 

compass plant, 263. 

conifers, discussion on, 331. 

conservation of moisture, 97. 

Convallaria majalis, 267, 275. 

Convolvulus Japonicus and Sepium 
313. 

corchorus, 298, 306. 

coreopsis species, 275. 

coriander, 460. 

corn, sweet, 477. 

corn salad, 477. 

Cornus Baileyi, 46. 

Cornus Mas, 51. 

cornus species, 292, 294, 295. 

corrosive sublimate for scab, 190. 

Corydalis lutea, 269. 

Corydalis nobilis, 267. 

corylus species, 295. 

costmary, 460. 

cotoneaster, 222, 295, 305. 

cottonwood, 326. 

cowpea, 464. 

coxcomb for bedding, 230. 

crab cactus, 359. 

crab trees, 327. 

cranberry, 423. 

crape myrtle, 305. 

Crataegus species, 295. 

cress, 478. 

crocus, 368. 

crocus, fall blooming, 284. 

Crosby, quoted, 198. 

croton, 369. 

crown-galls, 180. 



crown imperial, 289. 

cryptomeria, 336. 

cucumber, 458, 478. 

cucumber diseases, 209. 

cucumber insects, 201. 

Cucumis Anguria, 479. 

Cucumis fcetidissima (perennius) 309 
312. 

Cucumis species, 311. 

cucurbit insects, 201. 

cultivating, 92. 

cultivators, 95. 

Cuphea, 236, 344. 

cupressus species, 333, 336. 

curbing, 69. 

curculio, 202, 441. 

currant, 425. 

currant, flowering, 300. 

currant, Indian, 304. 

currant diseases, 209. 

currant-worm, 203. 

cuttings, 118. 

cut-worms, 186, 203, 449. 

cycas, 344, 385. 

cyclamen, 370. 

Cydonia Japonica, 52, 295, 306. 

Cydonia Maulei, 52, 295. 

Cypress, bald, 329. 

daffodil, 382. 

dahlia, 370. 

Dahlia arborea or excelsa, 372. 

daisy, 265. 

dandelion, 479. 

daphnes, 53, 295. 

day-lily, 38. 

delphiniums, 271, 275. 

Desmodium Canadense, 264. 

desmodium species, 298. 

Deutzia gracilis, 53. 

deutzia species, 296, 306. 

dewberry, culture of, 426. 

dewberry for banks, 216. 

dewberry insects, 205. 

dianthus, 270, 275. 

dibbers, 123, 124. 

Dicentra spectabilis, 267, 276. 

Dictamnus Fraxinella, 270. 

diervillas, 296. 

dill, 460. 

dioscorea species, 313. 



INDEX 



531 



Dirca palustris, 296. 
diseases of plants, 207. 
ditching, 88. 
dockmackie, 305. 
Dodecatheon Meadia, 265. 
dogs and gardens, 178. 
dog-tooth violet, 289. 
dogwoods, 294, 295, 330. 
Dolichos Japonic us, 317. 
dolichos, species, 464. 
Donnell, Webb, quoted, 453. 
doronicum, 265, 276. 
doucin stocks, 409. 
Dracaena fragrans, 344. 
drainage of land, 88. 
drainage of walks, 69. 
drives and walks, 67. 
dry bouquets, 245. 
Duggar, on mushrooms, 484. 
dutchman's pipe, 317. 
dwarf fruit-trees, 409. 

Easter lily, 346. 

echeveria, 235. 

Echinocystis lobata, 309. 

egg-plant, 458, 480. 

Egyptian lily, 360. 

elaeagnus species, 51, 296, 306. 

elecampane, 263. 

elm, 329, 330. 

elm-leaf beetle, 204. 

emulsion, carbolic acid, 194 ; kerosene, 

194. 
endive, 481. 
enemies of plants, 178. 
enriching the land, 110. 
Epimedium rubrum, 276. 
epiphyllum, 344, 359. 
Erianthus Ravenna?, 264. 
Erigeron speciosus, 276. 
Eulalia, 230, 264. 
Euonymus, climbing, 309, 315. 
Euonymus species, 296, 306. 
Euphorbia, 344. 
evergreens, discussion on, 331. 
everlastings, 245. 
exochorda, 296, 306. 

fagus species, 324. 

Falconer, Wm., quoted, 34, 261, 484. 

Farfugium grande, 344. 



Fatsia Japonica and F. papyrifera, 230, 
354. 

fennel, 460. 

ferns, 372. 

fertilizing land, 110. 

Fessenden, mentioned, 2. 

Festuca glauca, 344. 

fetter bush, 306. 

Ficus elastica, 229, 344. 

Ficus repens, 315. 

fig, 426. 

filberts, 295, 433. 

fir, 335. 

flame flower, 272. 

Fletcher, S. W., quoted, 431. 

flower-garden in landscape, 27, 34, 225. 

foliage in landscapes, 37, 218. 

forcing-hill, 161. 

forcing plants, 161. 

forget-me-nots, 266. 

formal gardens, 12. 

formalin for scab, 190. 

formal trees, 40. 

formulas for fungicides, 196 ; in- 
secticides, 193. 

Forsythia suspensa, 53, 216, 296; 
viridissima, 53, 216, 296, 306. 

frames, 164. 

fraxinus species, 324. 

freesia, 373. 

fringe tree, 294, 305. 

fritillary, 289. 

fruit-buds, 141. 

fruits, culture of, 408. 

fuchsia, 344, 373. 

fumigating, 188. 

fumitory, 267. 

fungi and insects, 178. 

fungicides, 196. 

funkia, 38, 262, 271, 272, 276. 

gaillardia, perennial, 270, 276. 

gardenia, 306. 

Gardiner Hepburn, mentioned, 2. 

garlic, 456, 481. 

gas plant, 270. 

gathering fruit, 414. 

Gelsemium semper virens, 317. 

Genista tinctoria, 297. 

geranium, 374, 386. 

gherkin, 479. 



532 



INDEX 



ginkgo, 324, 330. 

girdled trees, 144. 

gladiolus, 374. 

Gleditschia tricanthos, 325. 

gloxinia, 375. 

Goff device, 187. 

goldenglow, 272, 280. 

golden-rods, 264, 272, 280. 

gooseberry, 427. 

gooseberry disease, 209. 

goumi, 296, 306. 

gourds, ornamental, 310, 312. 

grading, 61. 

grafting, 151. 

grafting-wax, 145. 

grape, culture of, 428. 

grape diseases, 209. 

grapery, 431. 

grapes for ornament, 315. 

grasses, ornamental, 245. 

grass for lawns, 78. 

greenbrier, 315. 

greens, 459. 

Greiver, T., quoted, 501. 

Grevillea robusta, 344, 376. 

ground-ivy, 309. 

ground-nut, 313. 

grub, white, 207, 449. 

guards for trees, 143. 

gum tree, 325, 326. 

gunnera, 230, 

gutters, 69. 

Gymnocladus Canadensis, 325. 

Gypsophila paniculata, 276. 

Halesia tetraptera, 52, 297. 
Hamamelis Virginiana, 297. 
handling the land, 87. 
handling the plants, 115. 
hand-box, 163. 
hand tools, 101. 
hand-weeders, 106. 
hanging baskets, 348. 
harebells, 269. 
harrows, 94. 
hazels, 295. 
Hedera Helix, 315. 
hedges, 220. 
heeling-in, 135. 
Helenium autumnale, 276. 
helianthus species, 263, 271, 276. 



hellebore for insects, 193. 

hemerocallis species, 277. 

hemlock, 221, 335, 336. 

Henderson, mentioned, 2. 

hepaticas, 265. 

herbaceous perennials, 260. 

Heuehera sanguinea, 270, 277. 

Hibiscus Moscheutos, 262, 277. 

Hibiscus Rosa-Sinensis, 305. 

Hibiscus Syriacus, 297, 305. 

hickories, 325, 433. 

Hicks, Edward, quoted, 132. 

hicoria species, 325. 

hippeastrum, 353. 

hitching to trees, 144. 

hoes, 101. 

hollies, 297, 306. 

hollyhock, 271, 376. 

hollyhock rust, 210. 

honey locust, 325. 

honeysuckles, 298, 306, 316. 

Hop, 311, 313. 
hop-tree, 299. 
horehound, 460. 
hornbeam, 324, 326. 
horseradish, 481. 
hotbeds, 168. 
house plants, 341. 
howea, 385. 
hoya, 406. 

Humulus Lupulus, 313. 
Hunn, C. E., quoted, 454. 
hyacinth, 377. 
hydrangea, 291, 297, 306. 
hydrocyanic acid gas, 189. 
hypericum species, 297. 
hyssop, 460. 

Iberis sempervirens, 265, 277. 
ilex species, 297. 
Illicium anisatum, 306. 
immediate effect, 215. 
immortelles, 245. 
inarching, 148. 
Indian currant, 304. 
insecticides, 193. 
insects, remedies for, 198. 
insects and fungi, 178. 
Inula Helenium, 263. 
Ipomcea pandurata, 313. 
Ipomcea Quamoclit, 311. 



INDEX 



533 



iris, 264, 267, 270, 277, 278, 378. 

iron- wood, 326. 

Isolepis gracilis, 344. 

ivy, Boston, Japanese, 314. 

ivy, parlor, 340 (see Senecio). 

ivy, true, 315. 

jasmines, 317, 344. 

jasminum species, 306, 317. 

Jerusalem artichoke, 463. 

jessamine, 317. 

jonquil, 383. 

Judas tree, 324. 

juglans species, 325. 

June-grass, 78. 

juniper species, 333, 334, 

kainit, 163. 
kale, 457, 482. 
Kalmia lati folia, 297. 
katsura-tree, 324. 
keeping fruit, 158, 414. 
Kenilworth ivy, 313, 340, 344. 
kentia, 385. 

kerosene emulsion, 194. 
kerria, 298, 306. 
kitchen-garden, 454. 
Kniphofia aloides, 272. 
Kcelreuteria paniculata, 325, 330. 
kudzu vine, 317. 

labels, 154. 
lady-birds, 199. 
lagenaria, 311. 
Lagerstrcemia Indica, 305. 
land, handling, 87. 
larch, 325. 
larix species, 325. 
latania, 385. 
Lathyrus latifolius, 311. 
laurel, cherry, 306, 330. 
laurel, great, 299, 391. 
laurel, mountain, 297, 
laurel, true, 306. 
Laurus nobilis, 306. 
lavender, 460. 
lawn, making, 77. 
lawns, treatment, 82. 
leaf cuttings, 120. 
leatherwood, 296. 
leek, 456, 483. 



Leiophyllum buxifolium, 298. 

lespedeza species, 298. 

lettuce, 483. 

lettuce disease, 210. 

Liatris spicata, 270. 

Libocedrus decurrens, 336. 

ligustrum species, 298. 

lilac species, 304. 

liliums, 278, 284, 378, 285. 

lily-of-the-valley, 86, 267, 275, 381. 

lima beans, 464. 

lime and sulfur wash, 195. 

Linaria Cymbalaria, 313. 

linden, 329, 330. 

Lindera Benzoin, 293. 

Linum perenne, 278. 

Liquidambar styraciflua, 325, 330. 

Liriodendron Tulipifera, 325. 

live-oak, 330. 

liver of sulfur, 197. 

liver-leaf, 265. 

lizard's tail, 264. 

Lobelia cardinalis, 272, 278. 

lobster cactus, 359. 

locust, 328. 

locust, honey, 221, 325. 

Lombardy poplar, 40. 

Long, E. A., quoted, 223. 

Lonicera Halliana, 53, 216. 

lonicera species, 298, 316. 

loose-strife, 264. 

lotus, 230. 

lovage, 460. 

luff a, 311. 

Lychnis alpina, 265. 

Lychnis Chalcedonica, 278. 

Lychnis Coronaria, 274. 

Lychnis Viscaria, 271. 

Lycium Chinense, 315. 

lycoris, 283. 

Lysimachia clethroides, 278. 

Lysimachia nummularia, 86, 309. 

Lythrum Salic aria, 264. 

madeira vine, 313, 344. 
maggots of cabbage, 187, 201. 
magnolias, 306, 325, 330. 
Mahernia odorata, 344, 345. 
mahonia, 293, 306. 
maidenhair tree, 324. 
maize, striped, 230. 



534 



INDEX 



mallow, rose, 262. 

M'Mahon, mentioned, 2. 

manure for hotbeds, 169. 

maples, 322, 323, 330. 

marguerite carnations, 363. 

marguerite chrysanthemum, 365. 

marjoram, 460. 

markers, 108. 

marshplants, 230. 

Mathews, Schuyler, picture b}^, 31. 

matrimony vine, 315. 

mats, making, 176. 

matthiolas, 402. 

Melia Azederach, 330. 

melon, 458, 487, 499. 

melon disease, 210. 
melon insects, 201. 

Menispermum Canadense, 317. 

Mertensia Virginica, 266. 

Mesembryanthemum, 309, 344. 

mice injury, 144. 

mignonette, 381. 

mignonette vine, 313. 

mikania, 313. 

miscanthus, 264. 

miscible oils, 194. 

mock orange, 298, 306. 

mock orange of South, 221, 306, 330. 

moisture, saving, 97. 

moles, 178. 

Momordica, 311. 

Monarda didyma, 271. 

moneywort, 86, 309, 340 (see lysi- 

machia). 
Monterey cypress, 220. 
monthly advice, 501. 
moon-flower, 313, 381. 
moonseed, 317. 

morning-glory, perennial, 313. 
morus species, 326. 
mounding-up trees, 136. 
mountain ash, 329. 
mountain laurel, 297. 
moving large trees, 130. 
muck, 111. 
Mucune utilis, 311. 
Muehlenbeckia, 318, 344. 
mulberry, 326, 330, 432. 
mulberry, French, 305. 
mulching plants, 136. 
muriate of potash, 111, 113. 



Musa Ensete, 229. 
mushrooms, 484. 
muskmelon, 487. 
muskmelon disease, 210. 
mustard, 487. 
myosotis, 266, 278. 
myriophyllum, 231, 349. 
myrtle, running, 86, 315. 
myrtle, true, 306. 
Myrtus communis, 306. 

narcissus, 382. 

negundo, 323. 

Nepeta Glechoma, 309. 

Nephrolepis exaltata, 340, 372. 

Nettle tree, 324. 

Nicotiana, 38. 

night-blooming cereus, 358. 

nine-bark, 298. 

nitrate of soda, 112, 113. 

nitrogen, 112. 

nozzles, 192. 

nuts, 433. 

Nyssa sylvatica, 326. 

oaks, 328, 330. 

odd plants, 40. 

CEnothera Missouriensis, 278. 

oil insecticides, 194. 

okra, 488. 

old-fashioned gardens, 32, 34. 

Olea fragrans, 306. 

oleander, 306, 383. 

oleaster, 296. 

onion, 456, 488. 

opuntia, 359. 

orange, culture of, 433. 

Orontium aquaticum, 264. 

osage orange, 221. 

osiers, 294, 295. 

Osmanthus fragrans, 306. 

Ostrya Virginica, 326. 

oxalis, 384. 

oxalis for window-gardens, 344. 

Oxalis tropaeoloides, 235. 

Oxydendrum arboreum, 326, 330. 

oyster plant, 494. 

oyster-shell scale, 204. 

paeonia : see peony, 
palmettoes, 306. 



INDEX 



535 



palms, 306, 384. 
palms for South, 306. 
pampas-grass, 230. 
pandanus, 344, 385. 
Panicum virgatum, 264. 
pansy, culture of, 386. 
papa vers, 270, 279. 
paper-white narcissus, 289, 383. 
papyrus, 232. 
Paradisea Liliastrum, 269. 
paradise stocks, 409. 
paris green formula, 193. 
parrot's feather, 231, 349. 
parsley, 490, 
parsnip, 456, 490. 
Passiflora incarnata, 312. 
passifiora species, 316. 
paulownia, 330. 
pavia, 293. 
pea, 459, 490. 
peach, culture of, 435. 
peach diseases, 210. 
pear, culture of, 437. 
pear diseases, 211. 
pear insects, 205. 
pea-trees, 294. 
pecan, 325, 433. 
pelargonium, 386. 
Pelargonium peltatum, 308. 
Peltandra undulata, 264. 
pennisetum, 230, plate v. 
pennyroyal, 460. 
pentstemon, 270, 272, 279. 
peony, 267, 269, 279, 387. 
peppermint, 460. 
pepperidge, 326. 

pepper, red, 458, 490. 

perennials, cultivation of, 260. 

Periploca Graeca, 216, 317. 

periwinkle, 86, 309, 315. 

Phalaris arundinacea, 264. 

Phaseolus multiflorus, 311, 313, 464 

phaseolus species, 464. * 

Philadelphus coronarius and grandi 
florus, 51. 

philadelphus species, 298, 306. 

phillyreas, 306. 

phlox, culture of, 388. 

phlox, perennial, 271, 279. 

Phlox subulata, 267, 279. 

phoenix, 385. 



phosphoric acid, 112, 113. 
photographing landscapes, 12. 
Phragmites communis, 264. 
physocarpus, 298. 
picea species, 334, 335. 
picture in landscape, 12, 58. 
pie plant, 493. 

Pieris floribunda, 299, 306 (Andro- 
meda) . 
Pilea arborea, 344. 
pine, 334, 335, 336. 
pinks, 270. 

pinus species, 334, 335, 336. 
Pittosporum, 306, 344. 
plane-tree, 326, 330. 
plan of grounds, 8. 
plant diseases, 207. 

plant-lice, 198. 

platanus species, 326. 

platycodon grandiflorum, 272, 279. 

plows, 93. 

Plumbago Capensis, 306. 

plum, culture of, 439. 

plum, diseases, 211, 440. 

plum, ornamental, 327. 

Poa compressa, 78; pratensis, 78; tri- 
vialis, 79. 

podocarpus, 336- 

poinsettia, 306. 

polemoniums, 279. 

Polianthes tuberosa, 404. 

polyanthus, 389. 

polygonums, 263, 317. 

pomegranate, 306. 

poplar, 41, 218, 326, 327. 

poppy, Iceland, 270, 279. 

Populus Bolleana, 218, 327. 

populus species, 326, 327. 

Populus tremuloides, 42. 

potash salts, 111, 113. 

potassium sulfide, 197. 

potato, culture, 492. 

potato diseases, 212. 

potato insects, 205. 

potato scab, 190, 212. 
potato vine, 317. 
Potentilla fruticosa, 299. 
Potentilla hybrida, 279. 
pot-herbs, 459. 
prickly ash, 305. 
Primula Auricula, 354. 



536 



INDEX 



Primula cortusoides, 280. 

primulas, 389. 

privets, 298, 306. 

propagating, 116, 118. 

protecting in winter, 135. 

Pruning, 139, 142, 149, 411. 

pruning at transplanting, 129. 

Prunus Caroliniana, 221, 306, 330. 

Prunus Laurocerasius, 306. 

prunus species, 299, 327. 

Pseudotsuga Douglasii, 335. 

psylla, 205. 

Ptelea trifoliata, 299. 

pteris, 373. 

Pueraria Thunbergiana, 317. 

pumpkin, 458, 496. 

pumps, 183, 185. 

pyracantha, 221, 292, 306. 

pyrethrum, 272, 280. 

pyrus, species, 327. 

•quercus species, 320, 328, 330. 
•quince, culture of, 442. 

rabbit injury, 144. 

j-adish, 493. 

railroad-worm, 199. 

rainfall, saving, 97. 

raspberry, culture of, 443. 

raspberry diseases, 212. 

raspberry insects, 205. 

ravenna grass, 264. 

records of plantation, 154. 

red-bud, 324. 

red pepper, 458, 490. 

red spider, 205. • 

red-top, 79. 

removing large trees, 130. 
repairing trees, 145. 
retinosporas, 220, 221, 333, 336. 
rhamnus species, 299. 
rhododendron, 390. 
rhododendron species, 299, 306. 
Rhodotypos kerrioides, 299, 306. 
rhubarb, 493. 
rhubarb, forcing, 162. 
Thubarb for ornament, 39. 
Rhus Cotinus, 291, 299, 306. 
rhus species, 299, 300. 
Rhynchospermum jasminoides, 317. 
Kibes aureum, 53. 



Ribes sanguineum, 53. 

ribes species, 300. 

richardia, 360. 

ricinus, 230. 

rill "improved," 24. 

Roberts, mentioned, 87, 93. 

robinia species, 300, 306, 328. 

rockeries, 232. 

rollers, 108. 

root-crops, 456. 

root cuttings, 118. 

root-galls, 180. 

Rosa rugosa, 37, 221, 292, 300. 
rosa species, 300, 301, 318. 
Rosa Wichuraiana, 216, 309. 
rose acacia, 300. 
rose, culture of, 391. 
rose diseases, 213. 
rose insects, 205. 
rosemary, 460. 
roses, climbing, 318. 
roses in landscapes, 37. 
rows, to make straight, 127. 
Rubus crataegifolius, 35, 206, 301. 
Rubus fruticosus, 53. 
Rubus laciniatus, 53, 309. 
Rubus odoratus, 45, 46, 301. 
Rubus phoenicolasius, 53, 301. 
Rudbeckia laciniata, 272, 280. 
Rudbeckia maxima, 271, 280. 
Ruscus aculeatus, 306. 
Russelia juncea, 344. 



rye-grass, 80. 

sacaline, 216, 263. 

sage, 460. 

salad plants, 459. 

Salisburia adiantifolia, 324. 

Salix laurifolia, 219, 301, 329. 

salix species, 301, 328, 329. 

salsify, 456, 494. 

salvia, perennial, 37. 

Salvia pratensis, 269. 

Sambucus species, 291, 302. 

Sanguinaria Canadensis, 265. 

San Jose' scale, 206. 

Santohna Chamaecyparissus, 236. 

sassafras, 329. 

Saururus cernuus, 264. 

saving of moisture, 97. 



INDEX 



537 



savory, 460. 

Saxifraga peltata, 262. 

Saxifraga sarmentosa, 344. 

Sayers, mentioned, 2. 

Scabiosa Caucasica, 280. 

scab on potatoes, 190. 

scale, San Jose, 206. 

scarifiers, 105. 

Schenley park, 34. 

Schizophragma hydrangeoides, 309, 

316. 
school-grounds, 11. 
scilla, 283, 289. 
screens for wind, 219. 
screen to protect against insects, 186. 
screw pine, 344, 385. 
scrubbing trees, 414. 
scuppernong, 315. 
sea-kale, 495. 
sedges for bogs, 232. 
sedum, 340. 

seed-beds, 117. 

seedlings, transplanting, 122. 

seed-sowing, 116. 

Selaginella denticulata, 344. 

sempervivum, 235. 

Senecio macroglossus and mikanioides, 
340, 344. 

senna, wild, 264. 

service-tree, 329. 

shearing, 140. 

shelter-belts, 219. 

she-oak, 376. 

shepherdia species, 302. 

shrubs, list of, 292. 

shrubs, pruning, 140. 

shrubs for the South, 305. 

Sicyos angulata, 309. 

silk vine, 317. 

Simonds, O. C, quoted, 69. 

Slingerland, quoted, 198. 

smilax (florists'), 340, 401. 

smilax species, 315. 

Smith, H. W., quoted, 501. 

Smith and Townsend, quoted, 180. 

smoke-tree, 299, 306. 

snowball, 304, 306. 

snow-berry, 304, 306. 

snowdrop, 281, 288. 

snowflake, 289. 

soap insecticides, 194. 



Socrates, 2. 

sod-cutter, 73. 

sodding, 84. 

soil, handling, 87. 

soil mulch, 98. 

Solanum Dulcamara, 216, 315. 

Solanum jasminoides, 317. 

solidagos, 264, 272, 280. 

Sophora Japonica, 330. 

Sorbus species, 329. 

sorrel, 495. 

sorrel-tree, 326. 

sourwood, 326. 

South Carolina, rock, 112. 

sowing the seeds, 116. 

sparrows, poisoning, 18. 

Spartium junceum, 306. 

spearmint, 460, 495. 

spider, red, 205. 

spinach, 495. 

Spiraea Aruncus, 264, 280. 

spireas, 221, 264, 280, 298, 302, 306. 

spraying, 190. 

spring beautv, 265. 

spruce, 221, 334, 335. 

spuds, 107. 

squash, 458, 496. 

squash insects, 201, 459. 

squill, 283, 288. 

stake labels, 155. 

staphylea species, 302, 303. 

Statice latifolia, 280. 

stem cuttings, 118. 

Sterculia platanifolia, 330. 

stevia, 344. 

Stewart, quoted, 207. 

stink-bug, 202, 459. 

St. John's wort, 297. 

stocks, 402. 

storing of fruits and vegetables, 158, 
414, 475. 

strawberry, culture of, 445. 

strawberry disease, 213, 449. 

strawberry tree, 306. „ •__ Rr 

streams, treatment of, 24, 58, bo, 
232. 

street trees, repairing, 145. 

strychnine for sparrows, 18. 

Stuartia pentagyna, 306. 

styrax, 303. 

subsoiling, 90. 



538 



INDEX 



subtropical gardening, mentioned 

229. 
sulfate of potash, 111, 113. 
sulfide of potassium, 197. 
sulfur as fungicide, 197. 
sumac, 299, 300. 
sunflowers, wild, 263, 271. 
sunken fence, 66. 
surgery, 142. 
swainsona, 344, 403. 
sweet-flag, 232. 
sweet gum, 325, 330. 
sweet-herbs, 460. 
sweet pea, culture of, 403. 
sweet potato, 496. 
Swiss chard, 475. 
- symphoricarpos species, 304, 306. 
Symphoricarpus vulgaris, 53. 
syringa, 298, 304. 
syringe, 183. 

tacsonia, 316. 

tallies, 156. 

tamarack, 325. 

tamarisk (tamarix), 221, 291, 304. 

tankage, 112. 

tanks for aquatics, 230. 

tansy, 460. 

Tarryer, tools, 103. 

Taxodium distichum, 329. 

taxus species, 334, 336. 

Taylor, A. D., quoted, 145. 

tecoma species, 314. 

tennis-screen, 55. 

tent-caterpillar, 206, 417. 

terracas, 62. 

Thalictrum aquilegifolium, 280. 

Thermopsis, mollis, 264. 

thinning fruit, 412. 

three guardsmen, 25. 

Thuja occidentalis, 333, 336. 

thyme, 460. 

Thymus argenteus, 235. 

tilia species, 329. 

tilling, 92. 

tobacco insecticide, 194. 

tomato, 458, 497. 

tomato disease, 213. 

Townsend and Smith, quoted, 180. 

Trachelospermum jasminoides, 317. 

Tracy's garden plan, 452. 



tradescantia, 340. 

transplanting young plants; 122; old 

plants, 124. 
tree guards, 143. 

Trees, lists and discussion, 319, 331. 
trees, moving large, 130. 
tree surgery, 142. 
trenching, 89, 90. 
trichosanthes, 311. 
trilliums, 267. 
trimming, 140. 
Tritoma Usaria, 272. 
Trollis Europaeus, 281. 
Tropaeolium peregrinum, 310. 
trowels, 106. 

trumpet creeper, 216, 314. 
tsuga species, 335, 336. 
tuberose, 404. 
tubers, culture of, 281. 
tub-plants, transplanting, 125. 
tulips, culture of, 405. 
tulip tree, 325, 330. 
turnip, 498. 

Tussilago Farfara, 216. 
typhas, 264. 

Ulmaria Filipendula, 271, 280. 
ulmus species, 329, 330. 
umbrella plant, 232. 
umbrella tree, 330. 

varnish- tree, 325. 
vegetables, culture of, 451. 
vegetable oyster, 494. 
viburnum species, 304, 305, 306. 
vigna, 464. 
vine a major, 315. 

Vinca minor, 86, 315, 340 (see peri- 
winkle, myrtle), 
vines, 307. 

violet, culture of, 406. 
violet insect, 206. 
violets, fumigating, 190. 
virgilia, 324. 

Virginia creeper, 216, 308, 309, 314. 
Vitex Agnus-Castus, 306. 
vitis species, 315. 

Walker, E., quoted, 234, 265. 
walks and drives, 67. 
walnut, 325, 433. 



INDEX 



539 



wandering jew, 340, 344. 
washing trees, 414. 
water cress, 478. 
watering hotbeds, 175. 
watering house plartts, 347. 
watering land, 100. 
water-lilies, 230. 
watermelon, 499. 
wax for grafting, 145. 
wax-plant, 406. 
wax-work, 317. 
weeders, 95, 106. 
weed-spuds, 107. 
weeping trees, 40. 
weigela, kinds, 296, 306. 
Well about a tree, 66. 
wheel-hoes, 96. 
Whetzel, quoted, 207. 
white-fly, 207. 
white grub, 207, 449. 
white hellebore, 193. 
wigandia, 230. 
willows, 41, 219. 
willow, species of, 301, 328, 329. 
windbreaks, 219. 

wind-flowers, 264, 265, 269, 273, 274, 
353. 



window-boxes, 337. 
window-gardens, 336. 
winter aconite, 289. 
winter protection, 135. 
wires, injury by, 149. 
wire-vine, 318. 
wistaria, 316. 
witch hazel, 297. 
witloof, 476. 
wood ashes, 111. 
woodbine, 316. 
woodruff, 269. 
wormwood, 460. 
wormwood, wild, 263. 

Xanthoceras, 305. 

Yams, ornamental, 313. 

yellows, 211. 

yew, 334, 336. 

Yucca filamentosa, 262, 271. 

Yuccas, shrubby, 306. 

zamia, 306. 

Zanthoxylum Americanum, 305. 

zebra grass, 264. 

Zizania aquatica, 264. 



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